General Biology Study Guide: Chapters 1–4 (Scientific Inquiry, Chemistry of Life, Water, and Carbon)

Study Guide - Smart Notes

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Qualitative Data: Descriptive data that does not involve numbers (e.g., color, texture).
Quantitative Data: Numerical data that can be measured (e.g., length, mass).
Hypothesis: A testable explanation for an observation or scientific question.
Theory: A broad, well-supported explanation for a wide range of phenomena.

Biology is the study of life, encompassing all living organisms and their interactions.
Scientific inquiry involves making observations, forming hypotheses, conducting experiments, and drawing conclusions.
Inductive reasoning derives general principles from specific observations, while deductive reasoning applies general principles to predict specific results.
Controls in experiments help determine the effect of a single variable by providing a standard for comparison.

Testing whether fertilizer increases plant growth by comparing treated and untreated plants (control group).

Atom, Proton, Neutron, Electron: Fundamental particles of matter; protons and neutrons are in the nucleus, electrons orbit the nucleus.
Atomic Number: Number of protons in an atom, determines the element.
Mass Number: Total number of protons and neutrons in an atom.
Isotope: Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.
Valence Shell: Outermost electron shell, determines chemical reactivity.
Electronegativity: Atom's ability to attract electrons in a bond.
Covalent Bond: Sharing of electron pairs between atoms.
Nonpolar Covalent Bond: Electrons shared equally.
Polar Covalent Bond: Electrons shared unequally, creating partial charges.
Ionic Bond: Transfer of electrons from one atom to another, creating ions.
Hydrogen Bond: Weak attraction between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom.
Van der Waals Interactions: Weak attractions due to transient local charges.

Atoms are composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Elements are defined by their atomic number.
Isotopes have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
Chemical bonds form when atoms share or transfer electrons to achieve stable valence shells.

Law of Conservation of Mass: Atoms are neither created nor destroyed in chemical reactions.
To balance an equation, ensure the same number of each atom on both sides.

Balancing the equation for water formation:

Polar Molecule: Molecule with uneven distribution of charges (e.g., water).
Cohesion: Attraction between molecules of the same substance.
Adhesion: Attraction between different substances.
Heat, Temperature, Specific Heat: Heat is energy transfer; temperature measures average kinetic energy; specific heat is the energy needed to raise temperature of 1g by 1°C.
Heat of Vaporization: Energy required to convert liquid to gas.
Evaporative Cooling: Reduction in temperature due to evaporation of molecules with highest energy.
Solution, Solvent, Solute: Solution is a homogeneous mixture; solvent dissolves the solute.
Hydrophilic: Water-attracting substances.
Hydrophobic: Water-repelling substances.
Mole, Molarity: Mole is 6.02 × 1023 particles; molarity is moles of solute per liter of solution.
Acid, Base, Buffer: Acids donate H+; bases accept H+; buffers stabilize pH.

Water's polarity allows it to form hydrogen bonds, leading to cohesion, adhesion, and high specific heat.
Water moderates Earth's temperature and supports life through evaporative cooling and solvent properties.
Acids and bases affect pH; buffers help maintain stable pH in organisms.

Water's high specific heat helps regulate body temperature in living organisms.

Organic Chemistry: Study of carbon-containing compounds.
Hydrocarbons: Molecules consisting only of carbon and hydrogen.
Isomer: Compounds with the same formula but different structures (structural, geometric, enantiomers).
Functional Group: Specific groups of atoms that confer characteristic properties to molecules.

Carbon's electron configuration allows it to form four covalent bonds, enabling complex molecules.
Carbon skeletons can vary in length, branching, and ring structure, contributing to molecular diversity.
Isomers have the same molecular formula but different structures and properties.
Functional groups (e.g., hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, sulfhydryl, phosphate) determine the chemical behavior of organic molecules.

Glucose and fructose are structural isomers with the same formula () but different structures.

Group	Structure	Properties
Hydroxyl	-OH	Polar, forms hydrogen bonds
Sulfhydryl	-SH	Forms disulfide bonds in proteins
Carbonyl	-C=O	Found in aldehydes and ketones
Carboxyl	-COOH	Acts as an acid
Phosphate	-PO4	Contributes negative charge, energy transfer

Additional info: Recognizing functional groups is essential for understanding biomolecule reactivity and interactions.