General Biology Study Guide for Korean Medicine

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Cell Biology and Biochemistry

Chemical Composition of Life

The chemical basis of life involves the elements and compounds that make up living organisms, as well as the types of chemical bonds that hold molecules together.

Isotopes and Chemical Bonds: Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons. Chemical bonds include covalent, ionic, hydrogen, and hydrophobic interactions.
Covalent Bonds: Strong bonds formed by the sharing of electrons between atoms.
Ionic Bonds: Bonds formed by the transfer of electrons from one atom to another, resulting in charged ions.
Hydrogen Bonds: Weak bonds important in the structure of water and biological macromolecules.

Biological Macromolecules

Macromolecules are large, complex molecules essential for life, including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose), disaccharides (lactose, sucrose), and polysaccharides (cellulose, starch, glycogen).
Lipids: Triglycerides, fatty acids (saturated/unsaturated), membrane lipids (phospholipids, glycolipids), and steroids (cholesterol, vitamin D).
Proteins: Amino acid classification, protein structure (primary to quaternary), folding/denaturation.
Nucleic Acids: Nucleotides, DNA and RNA structure and stability (A260 absorbance).

Enzymes and Regulation

Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions and are regulated by various mechanisms.

Enzyme Action: Specificity and catalytic mechanisms.
Cofactors and Coenzymes: NAD+, FAD, CoA, vitamins.
Enzyme Inhibition: Irreversible, reversible, competitive, noncompetitive.
Enzyme Regulation: Allosteric, feedback, covalent modification.

Cellular Structure and Function

Cells are the basic units of life, classified by structure and function.

Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells: Prokaryotes lack a nucleus; eukaryotes have membrane-bound organelles.
Cell Components: Nucleus, ribosomes, organelles.
Cellular Energy: Mitochondria and chloroplasts.

Membrane Transport

Transport across cell membranes is essential for maintaining homeostasis.

Passive Transport: Simple/facilitated diffusion, channels.
Active Transport: Primary (e.g., Na+/K+ pump), secondary (symport, antiport).

Cell Metabolism and Energy

Cells obtain and use energy through metabolic pathways.

Catabolic Pathways: Amino acid catabolism, urea cycle.
Oxidative Phosphorylation: Electron transport chain, ATP synthesis.
Cellular Respiration: Glycolysis, Krebs cycle, electron transport chain.
Photosynthesis: Occurs in plants; follows the Z-scheme and chemiosmotic hypothesis.

Cell Communication

Cells communicate through signaling pathways to coordinate activities.

Cell Signaling Pathways: Guanylyl cyclase, tyrosine kinase, G-protein coupled receptors.

Core Genetics

Mendelian Laws and Test Crosses

Genetics studies inheritance patterns and gene function.

Mendelian Laws: Segregation, independent assortment, dominance.
Exceptions to Mendelism: Incomplete dominance, codominance, lethal alleles, polygenic traits.
Multiple Alleles: ABO blood group system.

DNA and Inheritance

DNA is the hereditary material, and its structure and replication are central to genetics.

Historical Experiments: Griffith, Avery-MacLeod-McCarty, Hershey-Chase, Franklin-Coma.
DNA Structure: Double helix, base pairing.
Replication: Eukaryotic replication (enzymes, Okazaki fragments, telomeres).

Gene Expression (Transcription and Translation)

Gene expression involves transcription of DNA to RNA and translation of RNA to protein.

RNA Polymerases: Prokaryotes and eukaryotes (Pol I, II, III).
Transcription Mechanisms: Initiation, elongation, termination.
RNA Processing: Capping, tailing, splicing, editing.
Protein Synthesis and Targeting: Ribosomes, mitochondria, nucleus.

Gene Regulation

Gene regulation controls when and how genes are expressed.

Prokaryotic Regulation: Lac operon, Trp operon.
Eukaryotic Regulation: Chromatin modification, transcription factors, insulators.
Dosage Compensation: X-inactivation, triple-color cats, mosaicism.

Mutation and Repair

Mutations are changes in DNA sequence; cells have mechanisms to repair DNA.

Types of Mutations: Substitution, silent, missense, nonsense, frameshift.
Dynamic Mutations: Fragile X, Huntington's disease.
Repair Mechanisms: Physical, insertion elements, excision repair, recombination repair, SOS repair.
Chromosomal Abnormalities: Structure (deletion, duplication, inversion, translocation), number (aneuploidy, polyploidy).

Microbiology and Virology

Viruses, Viroids, and Prions

Microbiology studies microorganisms, including viruses, viroids, and prions.

Viral Characteristics: Structure (capsid, envelope), classification.
Bacteriophage Life Cycles: Lytic, lysogenic.
Viral Diseases: Influenza, HIV, retroviruses, hepatitis.
Viroids and Prions: Infectious RNA and protein particles (e.g., mad cow disease).

Bacterial Growth and Genetics

Bacteria reproduce and exchange genetic material through various mechanisms.

Plasmids and Transposons: Mobile genetic elements.
Bacterial Growth Phases: Lag, log, stationary, death.
Culture Methods: Techniques for growing bacteria in the lab.

Physiology (Organ Systems)

Nervous System

The nervous system controls and coordinates body activities.

CNS Protection: Meninges, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), blood-brain barrier (BBB).
CNS Anatomy: Cerebral cortex localization, brain waves.
Peripheral Nervous System: Cranial nerves, autonomic system (sympathetic vs. parasympathetic).
Neurotransmitters and Receptors: Dopamine, serotonin, glutamate, GABA.

Sensory Systems

Sensory systems detect and process environmental stimuli.

Vision: Structure of the eye, phototransduction (rod/cone cells, light adaptation).
Color Vision: Color theory.
Hearing and Balance: Ear structure, sound transduction (hair cells), vestibular system.
Olfaction and Gustation: Receptor mechanisms.

Endocrine System

The endocrine system regulates physiological processes via hormones.

Hormone Classification: Peptide, amine, steroid.
Hypothalamic/Pituitary Axis: GH, ACTH, ADH, vasopressin, oxytocin.
Thyroid, Adrenal, Gonadal Hormones: Cortisol, aldosterone, epinephrine, testosterone.
Pancreas and Glucose Regulation: Insulin, glucagon, diabetes types.
Eicosanoids: Prostaglandins, leukotrienes, anti-inflammatory drugs.

Circulatory System

The circulatory system transports nutrients, gases, and wastes.

Types of Circulatory Systems: Open vs. closed, vertebrate heart types.
Cardiac Cycle and Electrical Conduction: Pacemaker cells, action potentials.
Blood Vessel Types: Arteries, veins, capillaries.
Hemoglobin and Oxygen Transport: Dissociation curve, fetal Hb, Bohr/Haldane effects.
Hemostasis and Coagulation: Platelet plug, intrinsic/extrinsic pathways.
Lymphatics and Edema: Causes and mechanisms.

Respiratory System

The respiratory system enables gas exchange and maintains acid-base balance.

Respiratory Tract Anatomy: Larynx, trachea, bronchioles, alveoli.
Mechanics of Breathing: Inspiration/expiration, pressure changes.
Gas Transport Mechanisms: CO2, O2.

Digestive System and Nutrition

The digestive system breaks down food and absorbs nutrients.

Essential Nutrients and Vitamins: A, D, E, K, B vitamins, C.
Liver Functions: Metabolism, detoxification.
Small Intestine Hormones: CCK, secretin, GIP.
Lipid Digestion and Transport: Chylomicrons, VLDL, LDL, HDL.

Excretory System

The excretory system removes waste and regulates water and electrolyte balance.

Waste Forms: Ammonia, urea, uric acid.
Nephron Structure and Function: Filtration, reabsorption, secretion.
Regulation of Kidney Function: ADH/vasopressin, aldosterone, ANP.

Reproduction and Development

Reproductive Systems

Reproductive systems ensure the continuation of species.

Sex Determination and Intersex Conditions: True/pseudo-hermaphroditism.
Male/Female Anatomy and Maturation: Testes, ovaries, menstrual cycle.
Gamete Production: Spermatogenesis, oogenesis.
Assisted Reproductive Technology: IVF.

Embryonic Development

Embryonic development involves the formation and differentiation of tissues and organs.

Gamete Structure: Sperm, egg.
Fertilization Mechanisms: Block to polyspermy, fast/slow block.
Early Development: Blastula, gastrulation, organogenesis.
Patterning Genes: Hox genes, segmentation genes.
Germ Layer Differentiation: Ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm derivatives.
Developmental Induction: Notochord, SHH, BMP, limb formation.

Immune System

Innate Immunity (Non-Specific)

The innate immune system provides immediate, non-specific defense against pathogens.

First Line Defenses: Mechanical/chemical barriers.
Cellular Components: Neutrophils, macrophages, mast cells, NK cells.
Cytokines: Complement, histamine, interferons.

Adaptive Immunity (Specific)

The adaptive immune system provides specific, long-lasting protection.

Primary/Secondary Lymphoid Organs: Bone marrow, thymus, lymph nodes, spleen.
Antigens, Epitopes, Haptens: Molecules recognized by immune cells.
Antibody Diversity: Types (IgM, IgG, IgE, IgA), generation of diversity (somatic recombination, junctional diversity, allelic exclusion).

Immune Disorders

Immune disorders result from abnormal immune responses.

Hypersensitivity Reactions: Types I, II, III, IV, V.
Autoimmunity: Hashimoto's, type 1 diabetes, myasthenia gravis, lupus.
Transplantation Immunity: Graft rejection, GVH.

Evolution, Classification, and Ecology

Evolutionary Theory

Evolution explains the diversity of life through genetic change over time.

Historical Perspectives: Lamarckism, Darwinism.
Evidence for Evolution: Fossils, biogeography, comparative anatomy, molecular clocks.
Mechanisms of Evolution: Natural selection, genetic drift.

Speciation and Taxonomy

Speciation is the formation of new species; taxonomy classifies organisms.

Species Concepts: Morphological, biological.
Modes of Speciation: Allopatric, sympatric, reproductive isolation barriers.
Phylogenetic Life Cycles: Cladistics, outgroups.

Diversity of Life and Life Cycles

Life cycles and diversity are key topics in biology.

Comparison of Life Cycles: Haploid, diploid, alternation of generations.
Plant Evolution: Non-vascular, vascular seedless, gymnosperms, angiosperms.
Animal Phyla Characteristics: Symmetry, coelom, circulatory/excretory systems.

Specialized Techniques and Disease Summary

Biochemical and Molecular Techniques

Modern biology uses specialized techniques for research and diagnosis.

Protein Purification: Salting out, chromatography, gel filtration, ion exchange, affinity.
Electrophoresis: SDS-PAGE, 1D/2D electrophoresis.
Blotting Techniques: Southern, Northern, Western.
Nucleic Acid Analysis: PCR, qPCR, DNA sequencing (Sanger, Maxam-Gilbert).
Immunological Assays: ELISA, hybridoma, immunoprecipitation, phage display.
Genetic Engineering: CRISPR/Cas, cloning vectors, knockout models.

Disease Summary

Diseases can result from genetic, infectious, or environmental causes.

Selected Diseases: Linked to genetics, protein misfolding, enzyme deficiencies, immune dysfunction (e.g., lysosomal storage disease, anemia, viral infections, neurodegenerative disorders).

Example Table: Comparison of Cell Types

Feature	Prokaryotic Cell	Eukaryotic Cell
Nucleus	Absent	Present
Organelles	Absent	Present (mitochondria, ER, etc.)
DNA Structure	Circular	Linear
Cell Division	Binary Fission	Mitosis/Meiosis

Example Equation: Michaelis-Menten Kinetics

The rate of enzyme-catalyzed reactions can be described by the Michaelis-Menten equation:

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