General Biology Study Guide: The Nature of Science, Pseudoscience, and Experimental Design

The Nature of Science: What is Science

Importance of Scientific Literacy

Scientific literacy is the ability to understand scientific concepts and processes, which is essential for informed decision-making and participation in society. It helps individuals critically evaluate information and understand the impact of science on daily life.

• Why is scientific literacy important? It enables individuals to make informed choices, understand scientific issues, and participate in discussions about science-related topics.

• Can society and culture influence science? Yes, societal values, cultural beliefs, and historical context can shape scientific research priorities and interpretations.

Empirical Nature of Scientific Knowledge

Scientific knowledge is based on empirical evidence, which is information acquired by observation or experimentation. This distinguishes science from other ways of knowing.

• How is science empirically natured? Science relies on data collected through observation and experimentation to support or refute hypotheses.

• Criteria used to differentiate science/pseudoscience Science uses testable, falsifiable statements and examples, while pseudoscience lacks rigorous testing and evidence.

• Distinguish between hypotheses and predictions A hypothesis is a testable statement about a natural phenomenon, while a prediction is a specific outcome expected if the hypothesis is true.

• Distinguish between hypotheses and practices Hypotheses are proposed explanations, while practices are methods or procedures used in scientific investigation.

• What is science and how do we do it? Science involves making observations, forming hypotheses, conducting experiments, and analyzing data to draw conclusions.

• Be able to write a good hypothesis A good hypothesis is clear, testable, and based on existing knowledge. Example: "If plants receive more sunlight, then they will grow taller."

Pseudoscience

Definition and Characteristics

Pseudoscience refers to beliefs or practices that claim to be scientific but lack empirical evidence and rigorous methodology. It is important to distinguish pseudoscience from genuine science to avoid misinformation.

• What is pseudoscience and how is it different from science? Pseudoscience lacks systematic observation, experimentation, and peer review.

• Understand the demarcation problem and how it relates to science The demarcation problem is the challenge of distinguishing science from non-science or pseudoscience.

• Know the difference between cognitive dissonance (cognitive bias), the Dunning-Kruger effect, and confirmation bias

  • Cognitive dissonance: The discomfort experienced when holding conflicting beliefs.

  • Dunning-Kruger effect: The tendency for people with low ability to overestimate their competence.

  • Confirmation bias: The tendency to search for or interpret information in a way that confirms one's preconceptions.

Pseudoscience and Experimental Design

Evaluating Scientific Studies

Critical evaluation of scientific studies involves assessing the validity of the experimental design, sample size, and reliability of results. Understanding these concepts helps distinguish science from pseudoscience.

• What is confirmation bias and how does it present in the study? Confirmation bias can lead researchers to favor data that supports their hypothesis, ignoring contradictory evidence.

• What was suspicious/interesting about the experimental and control groups in Wakefield's study? Additional info: Wakefield's study on vaccines and autism was criticized for its small sample size, lack of proper controls, and ethical issues.

• What are the rules for sample size? Why do we need sample size? What is an appropriate sample size? Larger sample sizes increase reliability and reduce the impact of random variation. The appropriate size depends on the study's goals and statistical requirements.

• How are reliability and validity different? Can you have low reliability and high validity?

  • Reliability: Consistency of results across repeated trials.

  • Validity: Accuracy in measuring what is intended.

  • It is possible to have low reliability and high validity, but results are less trustworthy.

• What is the difference between autism science and pseudoscience? Autism science relies on peer-reviewed, evidence-based research, while pseudoscience lacks scientific rigor.

What is Biology

Classification and Organization of Life

Biology is the study of living organisms and their interactions with the environment. Organisms are classified into domains and kingdoms based on shared characteristics.

• Hierarchical organization of organisms Organisms are grouped into domains, kingdoms, etc., based on evolutionary relationships.

• What types of organisms are in each grouping?

  • Domains: Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya

  • Kingdoms: Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista, etc.

• How do we classify these groups? Classification is based on genetic, morphological, and biochemical similarities.

• What is the basic organization of cells? Cells are the basic unit of life, with prokaryotic cells lacking a nucleus and eukaryotic cells containing a nucleus and organelles.

• What do all living things have in common? All living things share characteristics such as cellular organization, metabolism, growth, reproduction, and response to stimuli.

• Be able to distinguish between cell types

  • Prokaryotic cells: No nucleus, simple structure (e.g., bacteria)

  • Eukaryotic cells: Nucleus, complex organelles (e.g., plants, animals)

Hypotheses/Prediction/Experimental Design/Data and Graphs (Labs 1-3)

Scientific Method and Experimental Design

The scientific method involves forming hypotheses, making predictions, designing experiments, and analyzing data. Understanding variables and controls is essential for valid experiments.

• What is the relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable in an experiment? The independent variable is manipulated, while the dependent variable is measured to assess the effect.

• Be able to predict/describe what the independent variable in an experiment is The independent variable is the factor that is changed or controlled by the experimenter.

• Be able to identify/describe what the dependent variable is and what measurements are used The dependent variable is the outcome that is measured, such as growth rate, temperature, or reaction time.

• Know what type of figure represents the independent vs. dependent variable In graphs, the independent variable is typically plotted on the x-axis, and the dependent variable on the y-axis.

• Be able to distinguish between control and experimental groups

  • Control group: Does not receive the experimental treatment; used for comparison.

  • Experimental group: Receives the treatment or variable being tested.

• Identify the independent and dependent variables given a statement or figure Example: "If fertilizer is added to plants, then plant height increases." Independent variable: fertilizer; Dependent variable: plant height.

Formulas and Equations

• Standardized equations in experimental design:

$\text{Rate} = \frac{\text{Change in measured variable}}{\text{Time}}$

$\text{Mean} = \frac{\sum x}{n}$

$\text{Percent Change} = \frac{\text{Final Value} - \text{Initial Value}}{\text{Initial Value}} \times 100$

Comparison Table: Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells

Feature	Prokaryotic Cells	Eukaryotic Cells
Nucleus	Absent	Present
Organelles	Few or none	Complex (e.g., mitochondria, chloroplasts)
Examples	Bacteria, Archaea	Plants, Animals, Fungi, Protists