Key Theoretical Perspectives in Developmental Psychology

Section I: Introduction to Developmental Psychology

Overview

Developmental psychology is the scientific study of how and why human beings change over the course of their life. This field examines physical, cognitive, social, and emotional development from infancy through old age.

Chapter 2: Theoretical Perspectives

Major Theories of Development

This chapter introduces foundational theories that explain patterns and mechanisms of human development. These theories provide frameworks for understanding how individuals grow, learn, and adapt across the lifespan.

Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development

Sigmund Freud proposed that personality develops through a series of childhood stages in which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous areas. This psychosexual energy, or libido, was described as the driving force behind behavior.

Approximate Age	Focus of Libido	Developmental Task Associated with This Stage
0–12 months	Mouth	Feeding: moving from breast and other forms of milk to solid foods.
12–36 months	Anus	Toilet training: moving from passing urine and feces without control to manipulating the need to go to the toilet and using a potty rather than a diaper or nappy.
36 months–6 years	Genitals	Gender: gender awareness, genital stimulation and resolving anxiety by identifying with same-sex parent.
6–12 years	No focus	This is a period of calm and resolution of the previous stages. No dramatic development occurs.
12 years onwards	Genitals	Sexuality: becoming sexually aware of self and others, sexual stimulation, and formation of intimate relationships.

• Key Point: Freud believed unresolved conflicts during any stage could result in fixation, affecting adult personality and behavior.

• Example: A person fixated at the oral stage may develop habits such as smoking or overeating.

Comparison of Freud and Erikson’s Stage Theories

Erik Erikson expanded on Freud’s ideas by emphasizing psychosocial development across the lifespan, focusing on social and cultural influences. Each stage involves a psychosocial crisis that must be resolved for healthy development.

Age of Child	Erikson	Personal Characteristic
Infancy to 12 months	Trust vs mistrust	Hope
12 months to 3 years	Autonomy vs shame	Will
3 to 6 years	Initiative vs guilt	Purpose
6 years to puberty	Industry vs inferiority	Competence
Adolescence	Identity vs role confusion	Fidelity
Young adulthood	Intimacy vs isolation	Love
Middle adulthood	Generativity vs stagnation	Care
Older adulthood	Ego integrity vs despair	Wisdom

• Key Point: Erikson’s theory covers the entire lifespan, while Freud’s focuses mainly on early childhood.

• Comparison: Freud emphasized internal drives; Erikson emphasized social and cultural factors.

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)

Classical conditioning is a learning process first described by Ivan Pavlov, in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response.

• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Naturally elicits a response (e.g., food causes salivation in dogs).

• Unconditioned Response (UCR): Natural reaction to UCS (e.g., salivation).

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Previously neutral, becomes associated with UCS (e.g., bell).

• Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to CS (e.g., salivation at sound of bell).

Example: Pavlov’s dogs learned to salivate at the sound of a bell after repeated pairings with food.

Piaget’s Three Mountains Study

Jean Piaget’s three mountains task was designed to test children’s ability to see things from another person’s perspective (egocentrism). Children are asked to describe what a doll sees from a different viewpoint.

• Key Point: Young children (preoperational stage) often cannot accurately describe the doll’s perspective, showing egocentrism.

• Developmental Implication: The ability to decenter and understand others’ viewpoints develops during the concrete operational stage.

Concrete Operations Stage: Main Abilities

During the concrete operational stage (ages 7–11), children develop logical thinking but are still limited to concrete, tangible concepts.

Logical Task	Child is able to convert this...	To this...
Reversibility	ACDEFB	ABCDEF
Classification	ABBAABABABA	(AAAA) (BBBBB)
Conservation	5 + 5 = 10	Therefore, 10 – 5 = 5

• Key Point: Children can perform operations on concrete objects and understand concepts like conservation, classification, and reversibility.

• Example: Understanding that the amount of liquid remains the same when poured into a differently shaped container (conservation).

Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Theory

Urie Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model emphasizes the multiple layers of environmental influence on development, from immediate settings to broader cultural contexts.

• Microsystem: Immediate environment (family, school, peers).

• Mesosystem: Interconnections between microsystems (e.g., parent-teacher relationships).

• Ecosystem: Indirect environment (e.g., parents’ workplaces, community services).

• Macrosystem: Cultural values, laws, customs.

• Chronosystem: Changes over time (life events, historical context).

Example: A child’s development is influenced by family, school, community, and cultural values, all interacting over time.