CHEM1152 (Organic and Biochemistry) Topic Study Guide

Organic Compounds

Bonding and Structure

Organic compounds are primarily composed of carbon and hydrogen, often with oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, or halogens. Their bonding and structure determine their chemical properties and reactivity.

• Bonding: Covalent bonds are predominant in organic molecules.

• Structure Types: Includes linear, branched, and cyclic forms.

• Functional Groups: Specific groups of atoms (e.g., hydroxyl, carbonyl, amino) that impart characteristic properties.

• Properties/Vitamins: Organic compounds can function as vitamins, essential for biological processes.

Chirality and Stereochemistry

• Chirality: Molecules with non-superimposable mirror images (enantiomers).

• Enantiomers: Stereoisomers that are mirror images.

• Fischer Projections: A method to represent three-dimensional molecules in two dimensions.

• Diastereomers: Stereoisomers that are not mirror images.

Alkanes

Structure and Properties

Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons containing only single bonds between carbon atoms.

• Acidic/Basic: Generally non-acidic and non-basic.

• Conformational Isomers: Different spatial arrangements due to rotation around single bonds.

• Physical Properties: Nonpolar, low reactivity, insoluble in water.

• Combustion: Alkanes undergo combustion to produce carbon dioxide and water.

Unsaturated Hydrocarbons

Alkenes and Alkynes

Unsaturated hydrocarbons contain double (alkenes) or triple (alkynes) bonds.

• Reactions: Addition reactions are common, such as hydrogenation and halogenation.

• Polymers: Alkenes can polymerize to form plastics.

Aromatic Compounds

• Benzene: A cyclic, planar molecule with delocalized electrons.

• Reactions: Substitution reactions are typical for aromatic compounds.

Alcohols, Ethers, and Thiols

Alcohols

• Structure: Contains a hydroxyl (-OH) group.

• Oxidation: Alcohols can be oxidized to aldehydes, ketones, or carboxylic acids.

Ethers

• Structure: Contains an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups.

Thiols

• Structure: Contains a sulfhydryl (-SH) group.

Aldehydes and Ketones

Structure and Reactions

• Aldehydes: Carbonyl group at the end of a carbon chain.

• Ketones: Carbonyl group within the carbon chain.

• Oxidation/Reduction: Aldehydes can be oxidized to carboxylic acids; both can be reduced to alcohols.

Carboxylic Acids and Derivatives

Structure and Reactions

• Carboxylic Acids: Contains a carboxyl (-COOH) group.

• Esters/Amides: Derivatives formed by replacing the hydroxyl group with an alkoxy or amino group.

• Hydrolysis: Esters and amides can be hydrolyzed to yield carboxylic acids.

Carbohydrates

Monosaccharides, Disaccharides, and Polysaccharides

• Monosaccharides: Simple sugars (e.g., glucose, fructose).

• Disaccharides: Two monosaccharides joined (e.g., sucrose, lactose).

• Polysaccharides: Long chains of monosaccharides (e.g., starch, cellulose).

• Reactions: Hydrolysis breaks down polysaccharides; glycosidic bond formation links monosaccharides.

Lipids

Fatty Acids, Triglycerides, and Phospholipids

• Fatty Acids: Long hydrocarbon chains with a carboxyl group.

• Triglycerides: Glycerol esterified with three fatty acids.

• Phospholipids: Glycerol, two fatty acids, and a phosphate group; major component of cell membranes.

• Hydrolysis: Lipids can be hydrolyzed to yield fatty acids and glycerol.

Amino Acids, Peptides, and Proteins

Structure and Function

• Amino Acids: Building blocks of proteins; contain amino and carboxyl groups.

• Peptides: Short chains of amino acids.

• Proteins: Polymers of amino acids; function as enzymes, structural components, and signaling molecules.

• Protein Structure: Primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary levels.

Enzymes

Function and Mechanism

• Enzymes: Biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions.

• Active Site: Region where substrate binds and reaction occurs.

• Inhibition: Competitive and noncompetitive inhibitors affect enzyme activity.

Nucleic Acids

DNA and RNA

• DNA: Double helix structure; stores genetic information.

• RNA: Single-stranded; involved in protein synthesis.

• Replication and Transcription: DNA is replicated; RNA is synthesized from DNA template.

Metabolism

Energy Production and Biochemical Pathways

• Catabolism: Breakdown of molecules to release energy.

• Anabolism: Synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones.

• ATP: Main energy currency of the cell.

• Glycolysis, Citric Acid Cycle, Electron Transport Chain: Major metabolic pathways for energy production.

Key Equations and Concepts

• Combustion of Alkanes:

$\text{C}_n\text{H}_{2n+2} + (\frac{3n+1}{2})\text{O}_2 \rightarrow n\text{CO}_2 + (n+1)\text{H}_2\text{O}$

• General Structure of Amino Acid:

$\text{H}_2\text{N}-\text{CHR}-\text{COOH}$

• ATP Hydrolysis:

$\text{ATP} + \text{H}_2\text{O} \rightarrow \text{ADP} + \text{P}_i + \text{energy}$

• Glycosidic Bond Formation:

$\text{Monosaccharide}_1 + \text{Monosaccharide}_2 \rightarrow \text{Disaccharide} + \text{H}_2\text{O}$

• Protein Structure Levels:

Level	Description
Primary	Sequence of amino acids
Secondary	Alpha helices and beta sheets
Tertiary	Three-dimensional folding
Quaternary	Assembly of multiple polypeptides

Additional info: These notes expand on the listed topics to provide a comprehensive overview suitable for GOB Chemistry students, including definitions, examples, and key equations relevant to organic and biochemistry chapters.