Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology

Anatomy and Physiology (A&P) is the study of the structure and function of the human body. This chapter provides foundational knowledge necessary for understanding more advanced topics in A&P, including body systems, tissues, cellular structure, and molecular biology.

Discipline Overview

• Anatomy is the study of body structure, including the identification of organs and their locations.

• Physiology is the study of body function, focusing on how organs and systems work.

• It is important to distinguish between anatomy and physiology and to recognize what is not included in each discipline.

Body Systems and Cavities

Body Systems

• Be able to identify the major body systems and their organs or functions.

• Examples include the nervous, circulatory, and digestive systems.

Body Cavities

• Understand the major human body cavities and their orientation within an anatomical diagram.

• Examples: cranial cavity, thoracic cavity, abdominal cavity.

Histology and Tissue Types

Histology

• Histology is the study of tissues.

• Know the order of structural organization from least to most complex: cells → tissues → organs → organ systems → organism.

Four Basic Tissue Types

• Epithelial tissue: covers and protects surfaces (e.g., skin, lining of the gut).

• Muscle tissue: responsible for movement (e.g., skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle).

• Connective tissue: supports and protects (e.g., bone, blood, adipose tissue).

• Nervous tissue: conducts electrical impulses (e.g., brain, nerves).

Homeostasis

Definition and Mechanisms

• Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment.

• Involves feedback mechanisms to regulate physiological processes.

Feedback Loops

• Three main components:

  • Receptor: detects changes in the environment.

  • Control center: processes information and determines response.

  • Effector: carries out the response.

• Negative feedback: reverses a change to maintain balance (e.g., body temperature regulation).

• Positive feedback: amplifies a change (e.g., blood clotting).

Directional Terms and Anatomical Planes

• Be able to use and recognize directional terms (e.g., superior, inferior, anterior, posterior, medial, lateral).

• Understand anatomical planes: sagittal, frontal (coronal), and transverse.

Serous Membranes and Body Cavities

Serous Membranes

• Serous membranes line body cavities and cover organs.

• Examples: pleura (lungs), pericardium (heart), peritoneum (abdominal cavity).

Structure of Serous Membranes

• Double-layered structure:

  • Parietal layer: lines the cavity wall.

  • Visceral layer: covers the organ.

• Serous fluid between layers reduces friction.

Chemical Bonds and Water Properties

Types of Chemical Bonds

• Ionic bonds: transfer of electrons (e.g., NaCl).

• Covalent bonds: sharing of electrons (e.g., H2O).

• Hydrogen bonds: weak attractions between polar molecules, important for water properties.

Water and Solutions

• Water is a polar molecule, allowing it to dissolve many substances.

• Hydrogen bonding is responsible for water's high surface tension and solvent abilities.

• Be able to identify monosaccharides (simple sugars) and disaccharides.

Mixtures and Solutions

• Know the difference between a buffer, organic compound, colloid, suspension, and solution.

Energy and Metabolism

• Understand terms related to energy:

  • Anabolic: building up molecules (requires energy).

  • Catabolic: breaking down molecules (releases energy).

  • Endergonic: absorbs energy.

  • Exergonic: releases energy.

Cell Structure and Organelles

Generalized Cell Structure

• Know the main components of a generalized cell: plasma membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus.

Cell Organelles

• Mitochondria: powerhouse of the cell, generates ATP.

• Microvilli: increase surface area for absorption.

• Cilia: move substances across cell surfaces.

• Flagella: enable cell movement (e.g., sperm cell).

Plasma Membrane and Transport

Membrane Lipids

• Know the proportion of different types of membrane lipids (mainly phospholipids, cholesterol, glycolipids).

• Phospholipid bilayer forms the basic structure of the plasma membrane.

Membrane Junctions

• Tight junctions: form a watertight seal between cells.

• Desmosomes: act as anchoring junctions, providing mechanical strength.

• Gap junctions: allow communication between cells.

Membrane Permeability

• Understand what characteristics determine whether a substance can passively permeate a membrane (size, polarity, charge).

• Know the difference between passive diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and osmosis.

• Be able to distinguish between isotonic, hypotonic, and hypertonic solutions.

Active Transport and Endocytosis

• Active transport requires energy to move substances against their concentration gradient.

• Types of endocytosis:

  • Phagocytosis: cell engulfs large particles.

  • Receptor-mediated endocytosis: specific molecules are taken in after binding to receptors.

Cell Cycle and Mitosis

• Know the general characteristics of interphase and the phases of mitosis (PMAT: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase).

• Be able to describe the main events in each phase.

Molecular Biology: Central Dogma

• Understand the flow of genetic information:

  • DNA (transcription) → RNA (translation) → Protein/Polypeptide

Additional info: This guide expands on the checklist by providing definitions, examples, and context for each topic, ensuring a comprehensive review for exam preparation.