BIOL 2202 Exam 2 Study Guide: Lymphatic, Endocrine, Respiratory, and Urinary Systems

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The lymphatic system is a vital component of the circulatory and immune systems, responsible for fluid balance, fat absorption, and immune defense.

Basic Functions: Cardiovascular assistance (returns excess interstitial fluid to the bloodstream), immune system support (houses and transports immune cells), and absorption of fats from the digestive system.
Pathway of Lymph: Lymph flows from capillaries → vessels → trunks → collecting ducts → subclavian vein.
Structure: Includes lymphatic capillaries, vessels, trunks, ducts, and lymph nodes.
Movement of Lymph: Lymph is moved through vessels by skeletal muscle contraction, pressure changes during breathing, and valves that prevent backflow.
Blockage: Blocked lymphatic vessels can lead to edema (swelling).

Primary Lymph Organs: Red bone marrow and thymus (sites of lymphocyte production and maturation).
Secondary Lymph Organs: Lymph nodes, spleen, and lymphatic nodules (sites where immune responses are initiated).

Lymph Node Anatomy: Contains cortex (with lymphatic follicles) and medulla; filters lymph and houses immune cells.
Immune Role: Lymph nodes filter pathogens and debris from lymph before it returns to the bloodstream.
Difference Between Infected and Cancerous Nodes: Infected nodes are typically swollen and tender; cancerous nodes are often hard and painless.

The endocrine system consists of glands that secrete hormones to regulate body functions such as growth, metabolism, and reproduction.

Major Endocrine Organs: Pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pineal, pancreas, gonads.
Hormone Regulation: Hormone release is regulated by feedback mechanisms (mainly negative feedback).
Hormone Classes: Amino acid-based (peptides, proteins) and steroid hormones.
Hormone Action: Hormones act via second messengers (e.g., cAMP, G protein) or direct gene activation (steroids).

Relationship: The hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland via releasing and inhibiting hormones.
Anterior Pituitary Hormones: GH, TSH, FSH, LH, PRL (regulate growth, metabolism, reproduction).
Posterior Pituitary Hormones: ADH and oxytocin (regulate water balance and uterine contractions).

Adrenal Cortex: Produces corticosteroids (aldosterone, cortisol).
Adrenal Medulla: Produces catecholamines (epinephrine, norepinephrine).
Other Organs: Pancreas (insulin, glucagon), gonads (sex hormones), placenta, GI tract, kidney.

The respiratory system is responsible for gas exchange, supplying oxygen to the body and removing carbon dioxide.

Conducting Division: Nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles (air passageways).
Respiratory Division: Respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveoli (sites of gas exchange).
Pharynx: Divided into nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx.
Larynx: Contains vocal cords, epiglottis, and cartilages (thyroid, cricoid, arytenoid).
Lungs: Right lung (3 lobes), left lung (2 lobes); each lung has its own pleural cavity.

Ventilation: Movement of air in and out of the lungs (inspiration and expiration).
Gas Exchange: Occurs across the respiratory membrane in alveoli; driven by partial pressure gradients.
Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Transport: Oxygen is carried by hemoglobin; CO2 is transported as bicarbonate, dissolved in plasma, or bound to hemoglobin.
Control of Breathing: Regulated by respiratory centers in the brainstem (medulla, pons); chemoreceptors respond to CO2, O2, and pH.
Respiratory Volumes: Tidal volume, inspiratory/expiratory reserve volume, residual volume, vital capacity.

COPD: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, includes chronic bronchitis and emphysema.
Asthma: Reversible airway constriction due to inflammation and hyperresponsiveness.
Hypoxia: Inadequate oxygen delivery to tissues.
Pneumothorax: Air in the pleural cavity causing lung collapse.

The urinary system maintains homeostasis by filtering blood, removing waste, and regulating fluid and electrolyte balance.

Main Organs: Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra.
Nephron: Functional unit of the kidney; consists of renal corpuscle (glomerulus + Bowman's capsule) and renal tubule (proximal tubule, loop of Henle, distal tubule, collecting duct).
Differences: Male and female urethra differ in length and function.

Functions: Excretion of metabolic wastes, regulation of blood volume and pressure, electrolyte and acid-base balance.
Filtration: Occurs in the glomerulus; driven by blood pressure.
Reabsorption: Movement of substances from filtrate back into blood (e.g., glucose, amino acids, water).
Secretion: Addition of substances from blood into filtrate (e.g., H+, K+).
Hormonal Regulation: ADH (antidiuretic hormone) increases water reabsorption; aldosterone increases Na+ reabsorption and K+ secretion.
Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS): Regulates blood pressure and fluid balance.
Acid-Base Balance: Kidneys excrete H+ and reabsorb HCO3- to maintain pH.
Renal Clearance: Volume of plasma cleared of a substance per unit time; used to estimate GFR (glomerular filtration rate).

Hormone	Source	Main Function
Insulin	Pancreas (β-cells)	Lowers blood glucose
Glucagon	Pancreas (α-cells)	Raises blood glucose
ADH	Posterior pituitary	Increases water reabsorption in kidneys
Aldosterone	Adrenal cortex	Increases Na+ reabsorption, K+ secretion
Cortisol	Adrenal cortex	Stress response, increases blood glucose
TSH	Anterior pituitary	Stimulates thyroid hormone release

where = concentration in urine, = urine flow rate, = plasma concentration.

Some details, such as the specific structure of the nephron and the mechanisms of hormone action, were expanded for clarity and completeness.
Table entries and equations were inferred and added for academic context and exam preparation.