Carbohydrates

Structure and Classification

Carbohydrates are organic molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and are classified based on their structure and complexity.

• Simple carbohydrates include monosaccharides (e.g., glucose, fructose) and disaccharides (e.g., sucrose, lactose).

• Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates, such as starch, glycogen, and cellulose.

• Ratio of C:H:O in carbohydrates is typically 1:2:1.

• Functional groups include hydroxyl (-OH) and carbonyl (aldehyde or ketone) groups.

Example: Glucose (C6H12O6) is a monosaccharide with an aldehyde group.

Energy and Storage

Carbohydrates are a primary energy source for the body.

• Energy yield: 1 gram of carbohydrate provides approximately 4 kcal.

• Storage: Glucose is stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles.

• Complex carbohydrates are digested more slowly, providing sustained energy.

Equation:

Regulation and Utilization

The body regulates blood sugar levels through hormones and metabolic processes.

• Liver function: The liver helps maintain blood glucose by storing and releasing glycogen.

• Brain preference: The brain primarily uses glucose for energy.

• Hormonal regulation: Insulin lowers blood glucose; glucagon raises it.

Dietary Recommendations and Guidelines

Nutrition guidelines provide recommendations for carbohydrate intake.

• DRI (Dietary Reference Intake): 45-65% of daily energy should come from carbohydrates.

• Current US guidelines: Emphasize whole grains, fruits, and vegetables.

Complex Carbohydrates and Fiber

Complex carbohydrates and dietary fiber are important for health.

• Examples: Whole grains, legumes, vegetables.

• Fiber types: Soluble (e.g., oats, beans) and insoluble (e.g., wheat bran).

• Benefits of fiber: Improves digestion, lowers cholesterol, regulates blood sugar.

• Complications of low fiber: Constipation, increased risk of chronic disease.

• Recommended intake: ADA suggests 25-38 grams/day for adults.

• Excess fiber: May cause bloating, interfere with mineral absorption.

Digestion and Absorption

Carbohydrate digestion begins in the mouth and continues in the small intestine.

• Enzymes: Amylase (saliva, pancreas), maltase, sucrase, lactase (small intestine).

• Production sites: Salivary glands, pancreas, intestinal lining.

• Absorption: Monosaccharides are absorbed in the small intestine and transported to the liver.

Metabolic Effects and Disorders

Carbohydrate metabolism affects health and disease risk.

• Insulin and glucagon: Regulate blood glucose levels.

• Glycemic index: Measures how quickly foods raise blood glucose.

• Diabetes symptoms: Excessive thirst, frequent urination, fatigue.

• Lactose intolerance: Inability to digest lactose due to low lactase enzyme.

• Ketosis: Occurs when carbohydrate intake is too low, leading to fat breakdown for energy.

Food Sources and Deficiency

Carbohydrates are found in a variety of foods.

• Nutrient-dense sources: Whole grains, fruits, vegetables, legumes.

• Deficiency effects: Fatigue, ketosis, impaired brain function.

Lipids

Structure and Types

Lipids are hydrophobic molecules including fats, oils, and steroids.

• Fatty acids: Long hydrocarbon chains with a carboxyl group.

• Triglycerides: Three fatty acids attached to a glycerol backbone.

• Steroids: Four fused carbon rings (e.g., cholesterol).

Energy and Dietary Recommendations

Lipids are a concentrated energy source and have specific dietary guidelines.

• Energy yield: 1 gram of lipid provides approximately 9 kcal.

• DRI: 20-35% of daily energy should come from lipids.

• Current US guidelines: Limit saturated and trans fats; emphasize unsaturated fats.

Equation:

Types and Functions of Lipids

• Saturated fats: No double bonds; solid at room temperature (e.g., butter).

• Unsaturated fats: One or more double bonds; liquid at room temperature (e.g., olive oil).

• Trans fats: Artificially hydrogenated; increase heart disease risk.

• Phospholipids: Major component of cell membranes.

• Cholesterol: Essential for hormone synthesis and cell membrane structure.

Essential Fatty Acids and Health

• Omega-3 fatty acids: Important for heart and brain health; found in fish, flaxseed.

• Omega-6 fatty acids: Found in vegetable oils; also essential.

• EPA and DHA: Long-chain omega-3s found in fatty fish.

• Fiber effects: Reduces cholesterol absorption.

Digestion, Absorption, and Transport

• Lipase: Enzyme that digests triglycerides.

• Bile: Emulsifies fats for digestion.

• Lipoproteins: Transport lipids in blood (e.g., LDL, HDL).

Heart Health and Dietary Patterns

• Mediterranean diet: Emphasizes olive oil, nuts, fish, vegetables; associated with reduced heart disease risk.

• Heart-healthy foods: Fatty fish, nuts, whole grains, fruits, vegetables.

Proteins

Structure and Types

Proteins are polymers of amino acids with diverse functions in the body.

• Amino acid structure: Central carbon, amino group, carboxyl group, side chain (R group).

• Peptide: Short chain of amino acids.

• Protein: One or more polypeptides folded into a functional shape.

• Denaturation: Loss of protein structure due to heat, pH, or chemicals.

Energy and Dietary Recommendations

• Energy yield: 1 gram of protein provides approximately 4 kcal.

• DRI: 10-35% of daily energy should come from protein.

• Current US guidelines: Emphasize lean meats, legumes, nuts, and dairy.

Equation:

Amino Acids: Types and Functions

• Essential amino acids: Cannot be synthesized by the body; must be obtained from diet (e.g., leucine, lysine).

• Non-essential amino acids: Can be synthesized by the body.

• Complete proteins: Contain all essential amino acids (e.g., eggs, dairy, soy).

• Functions: Enzymes, hormones, structural components, immune function.

Digestion, Absorption, and Utilization

• Proteases: Enzymes that break down proteins in the stomach and small intestine.

• Stomach protection: Mucus lining prevents self-digestion.

• Absorption: Amino acids absorbed in small intestine, distributed via bloodstream.

• Protein quality: Determined by amino acid composition and digestibility.

Food Sources and Health Implications

• Complete protein sources: Meat, fish, eggs, dairy, soy.

• Deficiency effects: Muscle wasting, impaired immunity, edema.

Additional info:

• For all macronutrients, the energy values are standardized: carbohydrates and proteins provide 4 kcal/g, lipids provide 9 kcal/g.

• Dietary guidelines are periodically updated by organizations such as the USDA and ADA.