Exam Overview and Structure

This study guide outlines the key topics, learning objectives, and essential vocabulary for Exam 2 in a college-level Anatomy & Physiology course. The exam will cover the skeletal system, joints, muscles, and the nervous system, focusing on structure, function, and terminology. Mastery of these concepts is essential for success on the exam.

Topics Covered

Learning Objectives by Topic

Appendicular Skeleton

• Structure and Function: Identify and describe the structure and function of the bones and markings of the upper and lower limbs.

• Pectoral and Pelvic Girdles: Explain how the limbs and girdles are connected to each other and to the axial skeleton.

Articulations (Joints)

• Joint Classification: Compare and contrast the different types and functions of fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial joints.

• Movement: Describe the types of movements made possible by joints and the axes/planes of movement they allow.

• Joint Structure: Identify the structures of synovial joints and explain their functions.

Muscles I & II

• Muscle Structure: Identify, classify, and describe the gross and microscopic anatomical structures and functions of muscles, including muscle fiber, fascicle, and connective tissue coverings.

• Muscle Identification: Identify the origin and insertion of a muscle and describe the structure and function of the microscopic anatomy of skeletal muscle tissue.

• Muscle Actions: Predict a muscle's function based on its name, location, size, and shape.

• Selected Muscles: Identify and describe the location and actions of selected muscles of the body.

Nervous System and Tissues

• Nervous System Divisions: Describe the functions of the divisions of the nervous system (central and peripheral).

• Neuroglia: Compare and contrast the structures and functions of types of neurons and types of neuroglia.

• Nervous Tissue: Identify and explain the structures and functions of nerves, white matter, and gray matter.

Key Study Tips

• Be able to define and identify all key structures and terms listed in the vocabulary.

• Practice with diagrams, models, and images to reinforce spatial understanding.

• Review practice questions and quizzes to familiarize yourself with question formats.

• Use flashcards and repetition to master terminology and structure identification.

Essential Vocabulary and Structures

The following is a selection of key terms and structures you should be able to define and identify on diagrams or models. This list is not exhaustive but covers the major areas for Exam 2.

Appendicular Skeleton

• Pectoral Girdle: Clavicle (acromial end, sternal end), Scapula (medial border, lateral border, glenoid cavity, coracoid process, acromion)

• Upper Limb: Humerus (head, greater tubercle, lesser tubercle, trochlear notch), Radius (head, radial tuberosity, styloid process), Ulna (coronoid process, head, styloid process, olecranon process)

• Hand: Carpals (scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, pisiform, trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, hamate), Metacarpals, Phalanges (proximal, middle, distal), Pollex

• Pelvic Girdle: Coxa (ilium, ischium, pubis), acetabulum, iliac crest, ischial tuberosity, pubic symphysis

• Lower Limb: Femur (head, neck, greater trochanter, lesser trochanter, lateral condyle, medial condyle, patellar surface), Patella, Tibia (lateral condyle, medial condyle, medial malleolus), Fibula

• Foot: Tarsals (talus, calcaneus, navicular, cuboid, cuneiforms), Metatarsals, Phalanges

Articulations (Joints)

• Joint Types: Synarthroses, amphiarthroses, diarthroses, fibrous joint, cartilaginous joint, synovial joint

• Synovial Joint Structures: Articular cartilage, joint cavity, synovial fluid, synovial membrane, ligaments, bursae, tendon sheath

• Movements: Flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, rotation, circumduction, supination, pronation, inversion, eversion, opposition, elevation, depression, protraction, retraction

• Specific Joints: Glenohumeral joint (glenoid labrum, glenohumeral ligament), knee joint (meniscus, collateral ligaments, cruciate ligaments, patellar ligament)

Muscles

• Muscle Structure: Fascicle, muscle fiber, myofibril, sarcomere, myofilament (actin, myosin), endomysium, perimysium, epimysium, tendon, aponeurosis

• Muscle Actions: Agonist, antagonist, synergist, fixator, origin, insertion

• Major Muscles: Deltoid, pectoralis major, latissimus dorsi, biceps brachii, triceps brachii, gluteus maximus, quadriceps femoris, hamstrings, gastrocnemius, tibialis anterior, masseter, temporalis, sternocleidomastoid

• Microscopic Anatomy: Sarcoplasmic reticulum, T-tubule, sliding filament mechanism, neuromuscular junction

Nervous System and Tissues

• Neuron Structure: Cell body, dendrite, axon, axon hillock, terminal bouton, synapse

• Neuroglia: Astrocyte, oligodendrocyte, microglial cell, ependymal cell, Schwann cell, satellite cell

• Nervous System Divisions: Central nervous system (CNS), peripheral nervous system (PNS), cranial nerves, spinal nerves

• Functional Organization: Sensory input, integration, motor output, afferent/efferent pathways, somatic/autonomic nervous system, sympathetic/parasympathetic divisions

• Nervous Tissue: Myelin sheath, gray matter, white matter, tract, nerve, endoneurium, perineurium, epineurium

Sample Table: Types of Joints

Key Definitions and Concepts

• Origin: The fixed attachment point of a muscle.

• Insertion: The movable attachment point of a muscle.

• Agonist: The primary muscle responsible for movement.

• Antagonist: Muscle that opposes the action of the agonist.

• Synergist: Muscle that assists the agonist in performing its action.

• Fixator: Muscle that stabilizes the origin of the agonist.

• Myelin Sheath: Insulating layer around axons that increases the speed of nerve impulse conduction.

• Gray Matter: Regions of the CNS containing neuron cell bodies.

• White Matter: Regions of the CNS containing myelinated axons.

Important Equations and Mechanisms

• Sliding Filament Mechanism: Muscle contraction occurs as myosin heads bind to actin filaments and pull them toward the center of the sarcomere, shortening the muscle fiber.

• Resting Membrane Potential: The difference in electrical charge across the plasma membrane of a neuron at rest, typically about .

• Action Potential: A rapid change in membrane potential that travels along the axon, allowing for nerve signal transmission.

Study Strategies

• Review all learning objectives and ensure you can explain and apply each concept.

• Practice identifying structures on diagrams and models.

• Use flashcards for vocabulary and key terms.

• Complete practice questions and review sample problems.

Additional info: Some content, such as detailed muscle actions and specific nerve pathways, may require further review in your textbook or lecture notes for full mastery.