Lab Exam 1 Study Guide

This study guide covers key topics and figures that may be included on Lab Exam 1 for Anatomy & Physiology. It includes anatomical figures, cell and skin structures, the skeletal system, and tissue types. Understanding these concepts is essential for mastering foundational material in human anatomy and physiology.

Figures to Study

• Anatomical Figures: 1.8, 1.10, 1.13a

• Cell Figure: 3.2

• Skin Figure: 5.1

• Bone Figure: 6.8

These figures illustrate key anatomical structures and should be reviewed in both labeled and unlabeled forms to prepare for identification questions.

Microscope Figure and Body Orientation

Cell Parts and Mitosis

Understanding the structure of the cell and the stages of mitosis is fundamental in anatomy and physiology.

• Stages of Mitosis:

  • I - Interphase: The cell prepares for division by replicating its DNA and organelles.

  • P - Prophase: Chromosomes condense, and the nuclear envelope breaks down.

  • A - Anaphase: Sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles of the cell.

  • M - Metaphase: Chromosomes align at the cell's equatorial plate.

  • T - Telophase: Nuclear envelopes reform around the separated chromosomes.

  • C - Cytokinesis: The cytoplasm divides, resulting in two daughter cells.

Example: During metaphase, all chromosomes are aligned at the metaphase plate, which is critical for equal segregation of genetic material.

Axial Skeleton

Major Components

The axial skeleton forms the central axis of the body and includes the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage.

• Cranial/Facial Bones: Protect the brain and form the structure of the face.

• Spinal Cord Structures: Vertebrae protect the spinal cord and support the body.

• Sternum and Ribs: Protect the heart and lungs; ribs are connected to the sternum anteriorly and to the vertebrae posteriorly.

• Connections: Anterior (front) and posterior (back) connections between bones provide structural integrity.

• Bones of the Upper Back: The scapula is a major bone of the upper back, providing attachment for muscles and facilitating arm movement.

Additional info: The axial skeleton supports and protects the organs of the head, neck, and trunk.

Appendicular Skeleton

Major Components and Connections

The appendicular skeleton includes the bones of the limbs and girdles that attach them to the axial skeleton.

• Shoulder Connections: The humerus connects to the scapula at the shoulder joint.

• Humerus: The long bone of the upper arm.

• Radius/Ulna: The two bones of the forearm; the radius is lateral, and the ulna is medial in anatomical position.

• Bone Projections/Condyles: These are rounded articular areas that link bones at joints.

• Carpals: The wrist bones; humans have 8 carpal bones.

• Phalanges: Bones of the fingers and toes; each hand has 14 phalanges.

• Femur: The thigh bone, the longest bone in the body.

• Tibia/Fibula: The two bones of the lower leg; the tibia is larger and medial, the fibula is lateral.

• Tarsals: The ankle bones; humans have 7 tarsal bones.

Additional info: The appendicular skeleton enables movement and manipulation of the environment.

Tissues

Epithelial Tissue

Epithelial tissue covers body surfaces, lines cavities, and forms glands. It is classified by cell shape and number of layers.

• Type: Simple (one layer) or stratified (multiple layers).

• Shape: Squamous (flat), cuboidal (cube-shaped), columnar (tall).

• Job: Protection, absorption, secretion, and filtration.

• Location: Skin, lining of the mouth, intestines, glands.

• Cell Types: Stratified squamous, simple cuboidal, simple columnar, etc.

Example: Stratified squamous epithelium forms the outer layer of the skin, providing protection against abrasion.

Comparison Table: Epithelial vs. Connective Tissue

Additional info: Epithelial tissue can provide clues about cancer development, as many cancers originate in epithelial cells (carcinomas).

Connective Tissue

Connective tissue supports, binds, and protects other tissues and organs. It is characterized by an abundant extracellular matrix.

• Type: Loose (areolar, adipose), dense (tendons, ligaments), cartilage, bone, blood.

• Shape: Varies; cells are often scattered within the matrix.

• Job: Support, protection, insulation, transport.

• Location: Under epithelial tissue, in tendons, bones, blood vessels.

• Cell Types: Fibroblasts, adipocytes, chondrocytes, osteocytes, blood cells.

Example: Bone tissue is a type of connective tissue that provides structural support and stores minerals.

Vascularization and Innervation: Connective tissues vary in blood supply and nerve presence. For example, cartilage is avascular, while bone is highly vascularized.

Skin and Dermis: The skin is composed of epithelial tissue (epidermis) and connective tissue (dermis). The dermis contains blood vessels, nerves, and connective tissue fibers.

Key Questions for Review

• What are the differences between epithelial and connective tissue?

• How does epithelial tissue relate to cancer development?

• What are the types of vascularization and innervation in connective tissues?

• What structures are found in the dermis versus the connective tissue?