BIO 163 Exam 1 Study Guide: The Human Body and Basic Chemistry

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The human body is organized in a hierarchical structure, from the simplest chemical level to the most complex organismal level.

Atom: The smallest unit of matter (e.g., carbon, hydrogen).
Molecule: Two or more atoms bonded together (e.g., H2O, CO2).
Organelle: Specialized structures within cells (e.g., mitochondria, nucleus).
Cell: The basic unit of life; smallest unit that exhibits all characteristics of life.
Tissue: Groups of similar cells performing a common function (e.g., muscle tissue).
Organ: Structures composed of two or more tissue types (e.g., heart, liver).
Organ System: Groups of organs working together for a common purpose (e.g., digestive system).
Organism: The complete living being (human).

There are 11 major organ systems in the human body, each with specific functions:

Integumentary: Protection, temperature regulation (skin, hair, nails).
Skeletal: Support, protection, blood cell production (bones, cartilage).
Muscular: Movement, posture, heat production (muscles).
Nervous: Fast-acting control, response to stimuli (brain, nerves).
Endocrine: Hormone production, slow-acting control (glands).
Cardiovascular: Transport of nutrients, gases, wastes (heart, blood vessels).
Lymphatic: Immunity, fluid balance (lymph nodes, spleen).
Respiratory: Gas exchange (lungs, trachea).
Digestive: Breakdown and absorption of food (stomach, intestines).
Urinary: Waste elimination, water balance (kidneys, bladder).
Reproductive: Production of offspring (ovaries, testes).

Maintaining boundaries (e.g., skin separates internal from external environment)
Movement (muscular system, movement of substances)
Responsiveness (ability to sense and respond to stimuli)
Digestion (breakdown and absorption of nutrients)
Metabolism (all chemical reactions in the body)
Excretion (removal of wastes)
Reproduction (cellular and organismal levels)
Growth (increase in size and number of cells)

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment despite external changes.

Feedback Mechanisms: Systems that maintain homeostasis via three components:
- Receptor: Detects changes (stimuli).
- Control Center: Processes information and determines response (often the brain).
- Effector: Carries out the response (muscles, glands).
Pathways:
- Afferent pathway: Carries information from receptor to control center.
- Efferent pathway: Carries commands from control center to effector.
Negative Feedback: Most common; response reduces or shuts off original stimulus (e.g., body temperature regulation).
Positive Feedback: Response enhances original stimulus (e.g., blood clotting, labor contractions).

Regional Terms: Specific areas of the body (e.g., brachial = arm).
Directional Terms: Describe positions (e.g., anterior/posterior, superior/inferior).
Body Cavities:
- Dorsal cavity: Contains cranial and vertebral cavities.
- Ventral cavity: Contains thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities.
Prefixes, Root Words, Suffixes: Used to construct anatomical terms (e.g., 'hypo-' = below, 'cardio-' = heart).

Ionic Bonds: Formed when electrons are transferred from one atom to another, creating charged ions that attract each other.
Covalent Bonds: Formed when atoms share electrons; can be single, double, or triple bonds.
- Polar Covalent: Unequal sharing of electrons (e.g., H2O).
- Nonpolar Covalent: Equal sharing of electrons (e.g., O2).
Hydrogen Bonds: Weak attractions between polar molecules, important in water and DNA structure.
Stability: Atoms are stable with 8 electrons in their outer shell (octet rule).

Polarity: Water is a polar molecule, allowing it to dissolve many substances.
High heat capacity: Absorbs and releases heat slowly.
High heat of vaporization: Requires much energy to change from liquid to gas.
Universal solvent: Dissolves ionic and polar substances.
Reactivity: Involved in hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis reactions.
Cushioning: Protects organs (e.g., cerebrospinal fluid).

Importance: Water is essential for chemical reactions, temperature regulation, and transport of substances in the body.

Water: Most abundant inorganic compound in the body.
Salts: Ionic compounds that dissociate in water; important for nerve and muscle function.
Acids and Bases: Release H+ (acids) or OH- (bases) in solution; affect pH.

pH Scale: Measures hydrogen ion concentration; ranges from 0 (acidic) to 14 (basic).
Normal blood pH: 7.35–7.45.
Buffers: Chemicals that resist changes in pH by absorbing or releasing H+.

Buffer Example: The bicarbonate buffer system in blood:

Acidosis: Blood pH drops below normal (e.g., due to lactic acid from exercise or acetic acid from alcohol metabolism).
Alkalosis: Blood pH rises above normal (e.g., from loss of stomach acid in bulimia).

Dehydration Synthesis: Forms new bonds by removing water; builds polymers from monomers.
Hydrolysis: Breaks bonds by adding water; splits polymers into monomers.

Carbohydrates: Sugars and starches; main energy source. Monomer: Monosaccharides (e.g., glucose).
Lipids: Fats, oils, and steroids; energy storage, insulation, cell membranes. Monomer: Fatty acids and glycerol.
Proteins: Chains of amino acids; structure, enzymes, transport. Monomer: Amino acids.
- Levels of Protein Structure: Primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary.
- Denaturation: Loss of protein shape and function due to heat or pH changes.
- Enzymes: Proteins that speed up chemical reactions by lowering activation energy.
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA; store and transmit genetic information. Monomer: Nucleotides.
- DNA: Contains instructions for protein synthesis.

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP): Main energy carrier in cells.
Structure: Adenine base, ribose sugar, three phosphate groups.
Energy Storage: Energy is stored in the high-energy phosphate bonds.
Phosphorylation: Addition of a phosphate group to a molecule, often activating it.

Example: ATP powers muscle contraction, active transport, and synthesis of macromolecules.