Child Development and Learning: Key Concepts in Introductory Psychology

Child Development: Foundations and Big Questions

Introduction to Child Development

Child development is a core area of psychology that examines how children grow, learn, and adapt from birth through adolescence. This field addresses fundamental questions about the origins of behavior, cognition, and social relationships.

• Key Questions:

  • How do children learn to navigate their worlds?

  • Are children born as tabula rasa (blank slates), or are some traits hardwired?

  • Does development progress gradually or through distinct stages?

  • How do nature (genetics) and nurture (environment) interact in development?

  • How do children become social and empathetic?

Learning & Conditioning

Definition and Theories

Learning is defined as a relatively long-lasting change in potential behavior that results from experience, not from maturation or development alone. Two major theories in the behavioral tradition explain how learning occurs:

• Classical Conditioning (Pavlov & Watson): Learning through association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus, resulting in a conditioned response.

• Instrumental (Operant) Conditioning (Thorndike & Skinner): Learning through consequences, where behaviors are strengthened or weakened by reinforcement or punishment.

Examples of Conditioning

• Classical Conditioning Example: After experiencing food poisoning at a restaurant, a person feels sick (conditioned response) when thinking about eating there, even in the absence of the actual food (conditioned stimulus).

• Operant Conditioning Example: In elementary school, reading 10 books earned a coupon for a free pizza. The behavior (reading) was reinforced by the reward (pizza), following a fixed ratio schedule (reinforcement after a set number of responses).

• Personal Example: Using a duck sound as a morning alarm leads to increased alertness upon hearing a quack, due to repeated association.

Schedules of Reinforcement

Reinforcement schedules determine how and when behaviors are rewarded, influencing the frequency and persistence of learned behaviors.

• Ratio Schedules: Reinforcement depends on the number of responses (e.g., fixed ratio: reward after a set number of actions).

• Interval Schedules: Reinforcement depends on the passage of time (e.g., variable interval: reward after unpredictable time intervals).

• Examples:

  • Checking social media for new posts (variable interval)

  • Attending class for pop quizzes (variable interval)

Nature vs. Nurture in Child Development

Are Babies Born Tabula Rasa or Hardwired?

The nature vs. nurture debate explores whether children are born with innate abilities or acquire them through experience.

• Hardwired Traits:

  • Reflexes: blinking, breathing, swallowing

  • Primitive reflexes: rooting, Moro (startle), Palmer grasp

  • Preference for faces

  • Early learned abilities: sense of fairness, empathy, number sense

  • Biological disposition to learn language

Attachment Theory

Studies of Attachment

Attachment refers to the emotional bond between a child and caregiver, which is crucial for psychological development. Classic studies, such as Harlow's monkey experiments, challenged the idea that attachment is solely based on feeding, highlighting the importance of comfort and security.

• Attachment Stages:

  • Pre-attachment (Birth - 6 weeks): Infants show no preference for a particular caregiver.

  • Attachment-in-the-making (6 weeks – 7 months): Infants begin to show preference for primary caregivers.

  • Clear-cut attachment (7 – 10 months): Strong preference for specific caregivers.

  • Formation of reciprocal relationships (10 – 18 months): Bonding with multiple caregivers.

Strange Situation and Attachment Types

Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation experiment identified different attachment styles based on children's reactions to caregiver departures and reunions.

• Secure Attachment (65-70%): Child uses caregiver as a secure base, is distressed by separation, and seeks comfort upon reunion.

• Avoidant Attachment (20-25%): Child avoids caregiver upon reunion, shows little distress during separation.

• Ambivalent (Resistant) Attachment (10-15%): Child is highly distressed by separation, seeks contact but may also resist comfort upon reunion.

Predictors of Attachment

• Caregiver Factors: Sensitive, responsive caregiving promotes secure attachment; inconsistent or cold parenting increases risk for insecure attachment.

• Infant Factors: Premature birth, developmental delays, or difficult temperament can affect attachment quality.

• Parental Dispositions: Parents prone to depression or anxiety may have infants with insecure attachment.

Cognitive Development: Piaget's Theory

Stages of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget proposed that children progress through distinct stages of cognitive development, each characterized by unique ways of thinking and understanding the world.

• Children as "Little Scientists": Children actively construct meaning through observation and interaction, using curiosity to explore their environment.

• Schemas: Mental structures that organize information about the world. Schemas evolve as children encounter new experiences.

• Adaptation Processes:

  • Assimilation: Integrating new information into existing schemas.

  • Accommodation: Modifying schemas to incorporate new information.

Gene x Environment Interactions

Genotype and Phenotype

Development results from the interaction between genetic makeup (genotype) and observable characteristics shaped by environment (phenotype).

• Genotype: The genetic code inherited from parents.

• Phenotype: The observable traits resulting from the interaction of genotype and environment.

Gene x Environment Effects

• Parents pass on traits genetically and create environments that reinforce those traits.

• Different genotypes elicit different environmental responses (e.g., a child with a difficult temperament may receive less positive attention).

• Individuals may seek out environments that match their genetic propensities (e.g., sensation-seeking children affiliating with similar peers).

Table: Twin and Sibling Genetic Relatedness

This table summarizes the percentage of shared genes among different types of siblings, illustrating the genetic basis for similarities and differences in development.

Relationship	Shared Genes (%)
Identical Twins	50
Fraternal Twins	30
Nontwin Siblings	20

Additional info: Actual genetic relatedness is 100% for identical twins, 50% for fraternal twins and nontwin siblings. The numbers above may reflect a simplified or illustrative example from the notes.