Exam 1 Study Guide: Foundations of Psychology (Ch. 1-4)

Ch. 1 Introduction & History of Psychology

Definition of Psychology

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. It seeks to understand how individuals think, feel, and act, both individually and in groups.

• Behavior: Observable actions of individuals.

• Mental Processes: Internal experiences such as thoughts, emotions, and perceptions.

• Example: Studying how stress affects decision-making.

Plato’s vs. Aristotle's Beliefs

Plato and Aristotle were early philosophers whose ideas influenced psychology.

• Plato: Believed in innate knowledge; knowledge is inborn and accessed through reasoning.

• Aristotle: Believed knowledge comes from experience; emphasized empirical observation.

• Example: Plato’s theory supports nature, Aristotle’s supports nurture.

Dualism (Descartes) vs. Materialism (Hobbes)

These theories address the relationship between mind and body.

• Dualism (Descartes): Mind and body are separate entities.

• Materialism (Hobbes): Mind is a product of physical processes; only matter exists.

• Example: Dualism suggests thoughts are non-physical, materialism suggests thoughts are brain activity.

Father of Psychology

• Wilhelm Wundt is considered the "father of psychology" for establishing the first psychology laboratory in 1879.

Behavioral Perspective

Focuses on observable behavior and the effects of learning.

• Beliefs: Behavior is shaped by environment and experience.

• Key Psychologists: John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner.

• Example: Studying how rewards influence learning.

Psychoanalytic Perspective

Emphasizes unconscious motives and conflicts.

• Founder: Sigmund Freud.

• Beliefs: Behavior is influenced by unconscious drives.

• Example: Analyzing dreams to understand hidden desires.

Humanistic Perspective

Focuses on individual potential and self-actualization.

• Key Psychologists: Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow.

• Beliefs: People are inherently good and strive for growth.

• Example: Therapy that emphasizes personal growth.

Structuralism vs. Functionalism

Early schools of thought in psychology.

• Structuralism: Analyzes the structure of the mind using introspection (Wundt, Titchener).

• Functionalism: Focuses on the purpose of mental processes (William James).

• Criticisms of Structuralism: Introspection is subjective and unreliable.

Cognitive Revolution

Shifted focus from behavior to mental processes in the 1950s-60s.

• Emphasis: How people perceive, remember, and think.

• Example: Studying memory and problem-solving.

Mary Whiton Calkins

• First female president of the APA. Developed paired-associate learning.

George Sanchez

• Pioneered research on cultural bias in intelligence testing.

Doll Study

• Conducted by Kenneth and Mamie Clark. Demonstrated effects of segregation on children’s self-esteem.

Ch. 2 Research Methods

Scientific Method: 5 Steps

The scientific method is a systematic approach to research.

1. Formulate a question

2. Develop a hypothesis

3. Design a study

4. Collect data

5. Analyze results and draw conclusions

Sample vs. Population

• Population: Entire group of interest.

• Sample: Subset of the population used in the study.

• Example: Studying college students (population) by surveying 100 students (sample).

Operational Definition

• Definition: Specifies how variables are measured or manipulated.

• Example: Defining "stress" as score on a stress questionnaire.

Case Study

• In-depth analysis of a single individual or group.

• Example: Studying a patient with a rare disorder.

Naturalistic Observation

• Observing behavior in its natural environment without intervention.

• Example: Watching children play in a park.

Independent vs. Dependent Variable

• Independent Variable (IV): Manipulated by the researcher.

• Dependent Variable (DV): Measured outcome.

• Example: IV: Amount of sleep; DV: Test scores.

Correlation

• Positive Correlation: Both variables increase together.

• Negative Correlation: One variable increases, the other decreases.

• Correlation Coefficient: Indicates strength and direction; ranges from -1 to +1.

• Interpretation: Closer to ±1 = stronger relationship; 0 = no relationship.

• Example: Height and weight (positive); stress and health (negative).

Experimental vs. Non-Experimental Design

• Experimental: Manipulates IV to determine causality.

• Non-Experimental: Observes variables without manipulation.

• Example: Randomized controlled trial (experimental); survey (non-experimental).

Theory vs. Hypothesis

• Theory: Broad explanation based on evidence.

• Hypothesis: Testable prediction derived from a theory.

• Example: Theory: Social support improves health; Hypothesis: People with more friends have lower blood pressure.

Belmont Report & Principles

• Ethical guidelines for research:

• Principles: Respect for persons, beneficence, justice.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

• Committee that reviews research proposals for ethical standards.

Ch. 3 Brain & Biology

Parts of a Neuron & Functions

• Dendrites: Receive signals.

• Cell Body (Soma): Contains nucleus; integrates information.

• Axon: Transmits signals away from cell body.

• Axon Terminals: Release neurotransmitters.

Myelin Sheath

• Insulates axon; speeds up signal transmission.

• Example: Multiple sclerosis involves myelin loss.

Brain Structures & Functions

• Medulla: Controls vital functions (breathing, heart rate).

• Hypothalamus: Regulates hunger, thirst, temperature, and hormones.

• Thalamus: Relays sensory information (except smell).

• Hippocampus: Involved in memory formation.

• Thalamus & Olfaction: Olfactory information bypasses thalamus.

• Pituitary Gland: Master gland; controls hormones.

• Corpus Callosum: Connects left and right hemispheres.

Endocrine System vs. Nervous System

• Endocrine System: Uses hormones; slower, longer-lasting effects.

• Nervous System: Uses electrical impulses; fast, short-term effects.

Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex & Functions

• Frontal Lobe: Planning, decision-making, motor control.

• Parietal Lobe: Sensory processing, spatial awareness.

• Temporal Lobe: Auditory processing, memory.

• Occipital Lobe: Visual processing.

Neurotransmitters & Effects

Neurotransmitter	Effect	Drug/Stimulus
Serotonin	Mood regulation, sleep	SSRIs (antidepressants)
Dopamine	Reward, movement	Cocaine, antipsychotics
Acetylcholine	Learning, memory	Nicotine
Glutamate	Excitatory, learning	MSG (food additive)
GABA	Inhibitory, calming	Benzodiazepines

Agonist vs. Antagonist

• Agonist: Enhances neurotransmitter action.

• Antagonist: Blocks neurotransmitter action.

• Example: Morphine (agonist for endorphins); naloxone (antagonist).

Somatic vs. Autonomic Nervous System

• Somatic: Controls voluntary movements.

• Autonomic: Controls involuntary functions (heart rate, digestion).

Sympathetic vs. Parasympathetic Nervous System

• Sympathetic: Activates "fight or flight" response.

• Parasympathetic: Promotes "rest and digest" functions.

Ch. 4 States of Consciousness

Automatic Processing

• Unconscious, effortless mental activity.

• Example: Driving a familiar route.

Selective Attention

• Focusing on specific stimuli while ignoring others.

• Example: Listening to one conversation in a noisy room.

Inattentional Blindness

• Failure to notice unexpected objects when attention is elsewhere.

• Example: Missing a gorilla in a video while counting basketball passes.

Circadian Rhythm

• Biological cycle of about 24 hours.

• Regulates sleep, body temperature, hormones.

Melatonin

• Hormone that promotes sleep; released by pineal gland.

Sleep Cycle Responsible for Vivid Dreaming

• REM (Rapid Eye Movement) Sleep: Most vivid dreams occur; brain activity resembles waking state.

Sleep Spindles

• Bursts of brain activity during Stage 2 sleep; may aid memory consolidation.

Narcolepsy vs. Insomnia

• Narcolepsy: Sudden sleep attacks; excessive daytime sleepiness.

• Insomnia: Difficulty falling or staying asleep.

Psychoanalytic Theory of Dreams

• Freud’s theory: Dreams reveal unconscious desires.

• Scientific Support: Largely unsupported by modern research.

Activation Synthesis Model

• Dreams are the brain’s attempt to make sense of random neural activity.

Depressants vs. Stimulants vs. Hallucinogens

Type	Effect	Example
Depressants	Slow nervous system	Alcohol, benzodiazepines
Stimulants	Increase activity	Caffeine, cocaine
Hallucinogens	Distort perception	LSD, psilocybin

Physiological vs. Psychological Dependence

• Physiological: Body adapts; withdrawal symptoms.

• Psychological: Emotional craving for substance.

Myths vs. Truths about Hypnosis

• Myths: Loss of control, mind reading.

• Truths: Increased suggestibility, not unconscious.

Benefits of Meditation

• Reduces stress, improves attention, enhances well-being.

• Example: Mindfulness meditation used in therapy.