Exam 1 Study Guide: Psychology Chapters 1-4 (Introduction, Research, Biopsychology, Consciousness)

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Ch. 1 Introduction & History of Psychology

Definition of Psychology

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. It seeks to understand how individuals think, feel, and act, both individually and in groups.

Behavior: Observable actions of individuals.
Mental Processes: Internal experiences such as thoughts, emotions, and perceptions.
Example: Studying how stress affects decision-making.

Plato’s vs. Aristotle's Beliefs

Plato and Aristotle were early philosophers whose ideas influenced psychology.

Plato: Believed in innate knowledge; knowledge is inborn and accessed through reasoning.
Aristotle: Believed knowledge comes from experience; emphasized empirical observation.
Example: Plato’s theory supports nature, Aristotle’s supports nurture.

Dualism (Descartes) vs. Materialism (Hobbes)

These are philosophical perspectives on the mind-body relationship.

Dualism (Descartes): Mind and body are separate entities.
Materialism (Hobbes): Mind is a product of physical processes; only matter exists.
Example: Dualism suggests consciousness is non-physical; materialism suggests it arises from the brain.

Father of Psychology

Wilhelm Wundt is considered the "father of psychology" for founding the first psychology laboratory in 1879.

Behavioral Perspective and Beliefs

The behavioral perspective focuses on observable behavior and the effects of learning.

Key Belief: Behavior is shaped by environmental stimuli and responses.
Example: Conditioning a dog to salivate at a bell.

Psychologists Associated with Behaviorism

John B. Watson
B.F. Skinner
Ivan Pavlov

Psychoanalytic Perspective and Beliefs

Founded by Sigmund Freud, this perspective emphasizes unconscious motives and conflicts.

Key Belief: Behavior is influenced by unconscious drives and childhood experiences.
Example: Anxiety resulting from repressed memories.

Humanistic Perspective and Beliefs

Focuses on individual potential and self-actualization.

Key Belief: People are inherently good and strive for personal growth.
Example: Therapy that encourages self-discovery.

Structuralism vs. Functionalism

Early schools of thought in psychology.

Structuralism: Analyzes the structure of the mind using introspection (Wundt, Titchener).
Functionalism: Focuses on the purpose of mental processes (James).
Example: Structuralism asks "what is consciousness?"; functionalism asks "what does consciousness do?"

Criticisms of Structuralism

Introspection is subjective and unreliable.
Cannot study unconscious processes.

Cognitive Revolution

A shift in psychology during the 1950s-60s emphasizing mental processes such as thinking, memory, and problem-solving.

Key Point: Led to the development of cognitive psychology.
Example: Studying how people remember information.

Mary Whiton Calkins

First female president of the American Psychological Association (APA).
Denied a PhD from Harvard due to gender.

George Sanchez

Pioneered research on cultural bias in intelligence testing.

Doll Study

Conducted by Kenneth and Mamie Clark.
Examined the effects of segregation on African American children’s self-esteem.

Ch. 2 Research Methods

5 Steps of the Scientific Method

The scientific method is a systematic approach to research.

Formulate a question
Develop a hypothesis
Design and conduct an experiment
Analyze data
Report results

Sample vs. Population

Population: The entire group of interest.
Sample: A subset of the population used in a study.
Example: Studying college students (population) by surveying 100 students (sample).

Operational Definition

An operational definition specifies how a concept is measured in a study.

Example: Defining "stress" as the score on a stress questionnaire.

Case Study

In-depth investigation of a single individual or group.
Example: Studying a patient with a rare brain disorder.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing behavior in its natural environment without intervention.
Example: Watching children play in a park.

Independent vs. Dependent Variable

Independent Variable (IV): The variable manipulated by the researcher.
Dependent Variable (DV): The variable measured for change.
Example: IV: Amount of sleep; DV: Test scores.

Positive vs. Negative Correlation

Positive Correlation: Both variables increase or decrease together.
Negative Correlation: One variable increases as the other decreases.
Example: Positive: Height and weight; Negative: Exercise and stress.

Correlation Coefficient

The correlation coefficient (r) measures the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables.

Ranges from -1 to +1.
Closer to ±1 indicates stronger correlation.
0 indicates no correlation.

Formula:

Non-experimental vs. Experimental Design

Non-experimental: Observational, cannot determine causality.
Experimental: Manipulates variables, can determine causality.
Example: Survey (non-experimental); randomized trial (experimental).

Design Used to Determine Causality

Experimental design is used to determine causality.

Theory vs. Hypothesis

Theory: Broad explanation based on evidence.
Hypothesis: Specific, testable prediction.
Example: Theory: Stress affects health; Hypothesis: High stress leads to more colds.

Belmont Report and Principles

Ethical guidelines for research with human subjects.
Principles: Respect for persons, beneficence, justice.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

Committee that reviews research proposals for ethical standards.

Ch. 3 Brain & Biology

Parts of a Neuron and Their Functions

Dendrites: Receive signals from other neurons.
Cell Body (Soma): Contains nucleus; integrates signals.
Axon: Transmits electrical impulses.
Axon Terminals: Release neurotransmitters.

Role of the Myelin Sheath

Insulates axon, speeds up transmission of electrical impulses.
Example: Multiple sclerosis involves loss of myelin.

General Functions of Key Brain Structures

Medulla: Controls vital functions (breathing, heart rate).
Hypothalamus: Regulates homeostasis, hunger, thirst, temperature.
Thalamus: Relays sensory information to cortex.
Hippocampus: Involved in memory formation.

Thalamus & Olfaction

All senses except smell (olfaction) pass through the thalamus.

Pituitary Gland

"Master gland"; regulates hormones and other glands.

Corpus Callosum

Connects left and right cerebral hemispheres; enables communication.

Endocrine System vs. Nervous System

Endocrine System: Uses hormones, slower, longer-lasting effects.
Nervous System: Uses electrical impulses, fast, short-term effects.

Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex & Their Functions

Frontal Lobe: Planning, decision-making, motor control.
Parietal Lobe: Sensory processing, spatial awareness.
Temporal Lobe: Auditory processing, memory.
Occipital Lobe: Visual processing.

Neurotransmitters: Effects and Drugs/Stimuli

Neurotransmitter	Effect	Drug/Stimulus
Serotonin	Mood regulation, sleep	SSRIs (antidepressants)
Dopamine	Reward, movement	Cocaine, antipsychotics
Acetylcholine	Muscle action, memory	Nicotine, Alzheimer's drugs
Glutamate	Excitatory, learning	MSG (food additive)
GABA	Inhibitory, calming	Benzodiazepines (anti-anxiety)

Agonist vs. Antagonist

Agonist: Enhances neurotransmitter action.
Antagonist: Blocks neurotransmitter action.
Example: Morphine (agonist for endorphins); naloxone (antagonist).

Somatic vs. Autonomic Nervous System

Somatic: Controls voluntary movements.
Autonomic: Controls involuntary functions (heart rate, digestion).

Sympathetic vs. Parasympathetic Nervous System

Sympathetic: Activates "fight or flight" response.
Parasympathetic: Promotes "rest and digest" functions.

Ch. 4 States of Consciousness

Automatic Processing

Tasks performed with little conscious effort (e.g., driving familiar route).

Selective Attention

Focusing on specific stimuli while ignoring others.
Example: Listening to one conversation in a noisy room.

Inattentional Blindness

Failure to notice unexpected stimuli when attention is focused elsewhere.
Example: Missing a gorilla in a video while counting basketball passes.

Circadian Rhythm

Biological cycle of about 24 hours regulating sleep and wakefulness.

Melatonin

Hormone released by pineal gland; promotes sleep.

Sleep Cycle Responsible for Vivid Dreaming

REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep is associated with vivid dreams.

Sleep Spindles

Bursts of brain activity during Stage 2 sleep; may aid memory consolidation.

Narcolepsy vs. Insomnia

Disorder	Symptoms
Narcolepsy	Sudden sleep attacks, excessive daytime sleepiness
Insomnia	Difficulty falling or staying asleep

Psychoanalytic Theory of Dreams

Freud’s theory: Dreams reveal unconscious desires.
Not strongly supported by scientific evidence.

Activation Synthesis Model

Dreams are the brain’s attempt to make sense of random neural activity during sleep.

Depressants vs. Stimulants vs. Hallucinogens

Drug Type	Effect	Example
Depressants	Slow nervous system activity	Alcohol, benzodiazepines
Stimulants	Increase nervous system activity	Caffeine, cocaine
Hallucinogens	Alter perception	LSD, psilocybin

Physiological vs. Psychological Dependence

Physiological: Body adapts to drug; withdrawal symptoms.
Psychological: Emotional or mental need for drug.

Myths vs. Truths about Hypnosis

Myth: Hypnosis can make people do anything.
Truth: Hypnosis increases suggestibility but cannot override morals.

Benefits of Meditation

Reduces stress, improves attention, enhances well-being.