Exam 1 Study Guide: Psychology Chapters 1-4 (Intro, Research, Biopsychology, Consciousness)

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Ch. 1 Introduction & History of Psychology

Definition of Psychology

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. It seeks to understand how humans and animals think, feel, and act, using empirical methods to investigate observable actions and internal experiences.

Key Point: Psychology combines scientific research with the study of mind and behavior.
Example: Studying how stress affects decision-making.

Plato’s vs. Aristotle's Beliefs

Plato and Aristotle were early philosophers whose ideas influenced psychology.

Plato: Believed in innate knowledge; the mind is separate from the body.
Aristotle: Believed knowledge comes from experience; mind and body are connected.
Example: Plato’s theory supports nature, Aristotle’s supports nurture.

Dualism (Descartes) vs. Materialism (Hobbes)

Dualism (René Descartes): Mind and body are distinct entities. Materialism (Thomas Hobbes): Only physical matter exists; mental processes are brain functions.

Key Point: Dualism suggests mental phenomena are non-physical; materialism rejects this.
Example: Dualism: Mind survives after death; Materialism: Mind ceases with brain death.

Father of Psychology

Wilhelm Wundt is considered the "father of psychology" for founding the first psychology laboratory in 1879.

Key Point: Wundt established psychology as a scientific discipline.

Behavioral Perspective and Behaviorism

The behavioral perspective focuses on observable behaviors, emphasizing learning through interaction with the environment.

Key Point: Behavior is shaped by reinforcement and punishment.
Psychologists: John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner.
Example: Training a dog using rewards.

Psychoanalytic Perspective

The psychoanalytic perspective (Sigmund Freud) emphasizes unconscious motives and conflicts.

Key Point: Behavior is influenced by unconscious drives.
Example: Childhood experiences affecting adult relationships.

Humanistic Perspective

The humanistic perspective (Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow) focuses on personal growth and self-actualization.

Key Point: Humans strive for meaning and fulfillment.
Example: Therapy encouraging self-exploration.

Structuralism vs. Functionalism

Structuralism (Wundt, Titchener): Analyzes the structure of conscious experience. Functionalism (William James): Focuses on the purpose of consciousness and behavior.

Criticisms of Structuralism: Too subjective; relies on introspection.
Example: Structuralism: Breaking down sensations; Functionalism: Studying adaptation.

Cognitive Revolution

The cognitive revolution (1950s-60s) shifted focus to mental processes like thinking, memory, and problem-solving.

Key Point: Led to modern cognitive psychology.

Mary Whiton Calkins, George Sanchez, Doll Study

Mary Whiton Calkins: First female president of APA; contributed to memory research.
George Sanchez: Studied cultural bias in intelligence testing.
Doll Study: Kenneth and Mamie Clark’s research on racial identity and self-esteem in children.

Ch. 2 Research Methods

Scientific Method

The scientific method is a systematic approach to research.

1. Formulate a question
2. Develop a hypothesis
3. Conduct research
4. Analyze data
5. Report results

Sample vs. Population

Population: Entire group of interest. Sample: Subset of the population studied.

Example: Studying college students (population); 100 students from one campus (sample).

Operational Definition

An operational definition specifies how a concept is measured.

Example: Defining "stress" as cortisol levels.

Case Study & Naturalistic Observation

Case Study: In-depth analysis of one individual or group.
Naturalistic Observation: Observing behavior in its natural environment.

Variables

Independent Variable: Manipulated by researcher.
Dependent Variable: Measured outcome.
Example: Drug dosage (IV) and symptom reduction (DV).

Correlation

Positive Correlation: Both variables increase together.
Negative Correlation: One variable increases, the other decreases.
Correlation Coefficient: Measures strength and direction ().
Example: Height and weight (positive); stress and sleep (negative).

Experimental vs. Non-Experimental Design

Experimental Design: Manipulates variables to determine causality.
Non-Experimental Design: Observes variables without manipulation.
Example: Randomized controlled trial (experimental); survey (non-experimental).

Theory vs. Hypothesis

Theory: Broad explanation based on evidence.
Hypothesis: Testable prediction.

Belmont Report & IRB

Belmont Report: Outlines ethical principles: respect for persons, beneficence, justice.
IRB (Institutional Review Board): Reviews research for ethical compliance.

Ch. 3 Brain & Biology

Parts of a Neuron

Dendrites: Receive signals.
Cell Body (Soma): Processes information.
Axon: Transmits signals.
Axon Terminals: Send signals to other neurons.

Myelin Sheath

Myelin sheath insulates axons, speeding up signal transmission.

Example: Multiple sclerosis involves myelin loss.

Brain Structures & Functions

Medulla: Controls vital functions (breathing, heart rate).
Hypothalamus: Regulates hunger, thirst, temperature.
Thalamus: Relays sensory information (except olfaction).
Hippocampus: Memory formation.
Pituitary Gland: Master endocrine gland; hormone release.
Corpus Callosum: Connects brain hemispheres.

Endocrine vs. Nervous System

Endocrine System: Uses hormones; slower, longer-lasting effects.
Nervous System: Uses electrical signals; fast, short-term effects.

Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex

Frontal Lobe: Planning, decision-making, motor control.
Parietal Lobe: Sensory processing.
Temporal Lobe: Hearing, language.
Occipital Lobe: Vision.

Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitter	Effect	Drug/Stimulus
Serotonin	Mood regulation	SSRIs (antidepressants)
Dopamine	Reward, movement	Cocaine, antipsychotics
Acetylcholine	Learning, memory	Nicotine
Glutamate	Excitatory	MSG (food additive)
GABA	Inhibitory	Benzodiazepines

Agonist vs. Antagonist

Agonist: Enhances neurotransmitter action.
Antagonist: Blocks neurotransmitter action.

Somatic vs. Autonomic Nervous System

Somatic: Controls voluntary movements.
Autonomic: Controls involuntary functions.

Sympathetic vs. Parasympathetic Nervous System

Sympathetic: Activates "fight or flight" response.
Parasympathetic: Promotes "rest and digest."

Ch. 4 States of Consciousness

Automatic Processing

Automatic processing occurs without conscious effort (e.g., driving familiar routes).

Selective Attention & Inattentional Blindness

Selective Attention: Focusing on specific stimuli.
Inattentional Blindness: Missing unexpected stimuli when attention is elsewhere.
Example: Not noticing a gorilla in a video when counting basketball passes.

Circadian Rhythm & Melatonin

Circadian Rhythm: 24-hour biological cycle regulating sleep and wakefulness.
Melatonin: Hormone promoting sleep, released by pineal gland.

Sleep Cycle & Sleep Spindles

REM Sleep: Responsible for vivid dreaming.
Sleep Spindles: Bursts of brain activity during NREM sleep.

Narcolepsy vs. Insomnia

Narcolepsy: Sudden sleep attacks.
Insomnia: Difficulty falling or staying asleep.

Theories of Dreams

Psychoanalytic Theory: Dreams reveal unconscious desires (not strongly supported by science).
Activation Synthesis Model: Dreams are brain’s attempt to make sense of random neural activity.

Drug Classes

Type	Effect	Example
Depressants	Slow CNS	Alcohol
Stimulants	Increase CNS activity	Caffeine
Hallucinogens	Distort perception	LSD

Dependence

Physiological Dependence: Body adapts to drug; withdrawal symptoms.
Psychological Dependence: Emotional craving for drug.

Hypnosis: Myths vs. Truths

Myth: Hypnosis can force people to act against their will.
Truth: Hypnosis increases suggestibility but does not override free will.

Benefits of Meditation

Key Point: Meditation reduces stress, improves attention, and promotes well-being.

Additional info: Expanded explanations and examples were added for clarity and completeness. Tables were recreated for neurotransmitters and drug classes. All key terms are defined and contextualized for exam preparation.