BackFoundations and Major Perspectives in Psychology
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Defining Psychology
Introduction to Psychology
Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour, thought, perception, emotion, and experience, and how these can be affected by physical, mental, social, and environmental factors.
Psychologists incorporate the scientific method in their research to ensure objectivity and reliability.
The Scientific Method in Psychology
Overview of the Scientific Method
A field of study is considered a science based on the use of the scientific method.
The scientific method involves collecting observations, developing theories, and using them to make predictions.
Scientific thinking focuses on hypothesis and theory formation and testing.
Scientists use theories to generate hypotheses, which are then tested and either confirmed or rejected.
Rejected hypotheses are revised and retested, potentially altering existing theories.
Theory and Hypothesis
A theory is an organized set of principles and explanations for a concept. It can serve as:
An outline for organizing concepts and ideas
An explanation about how and why something is as it is
A statement of possible relationships between concepts
An endeavor to increase understanding about complex issues
A hypothesis must be testable and falsifiable. It is either supported or rejected based on evidence.
Example of a falsifiable hypothesis: "All swans are white." Finding a black swan would falsify it.
The Biopsychosocial Model
Understanding Behaviour
Psychologists view behaviour from three interacting perspectives: biological, psychological, and sociocultural.
The biopsychosocial model explains behaviour as a product of these three factors.
Leads to a deeper understanding of human behaviour.
Biological influences involve brain structures, chemicals, hormones, and external substances such as drugs.
Example: How do drugs affect behaviour?
Psychological influences involve memories, emotions, and personalities, affecting how we think and respond to different situations.
Example: How does one's mood affect their thoughts?
Sociocultural factors include family, peers, ethnicity, and culture.
Example: What social situations lead to conformity?
Building Scientific Literacy
Skills for Scientific Literacy
Scientific literacy is the ability to understand, analyze, and apply scientific information.
Key skills include:
Gathering knowledge about the world
Explaining it using scientific terms and concepts
Using critical thinking to evaluate evidence and look for bias
Applying information to improve theories and address real-world issues
Philosophical and Scientific Origins of Psychology
Ancient Influences
Ancient Greek physician Hippocrates developed the first personality classification scheme based on four humours: blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm.
Galen refined Hippocrates' model, suggesting that the four humours combined to create temperaments.
Temperament | Description |
|---|---|
Sanguine (blood) | Impulsive, pleasure-seeking, charismatic |
Choleric (yellow bile) | Ambitious, energetic, aggressive |
Melancholic (black bile) | Independent, perfectionistic, introverted |
Phlegmatic (phlegm) | Quiet, relaxed, content |
Influences from Physics
Early experiments in psychology were conducted by physicists and physiologists.
Gustav Fechner explored the relationship between physical stimuli and mental experience.
Influences from Evolutionary Theory
Charles Darwin introduced natural selection, explaining how inherited traits contribute to survival and behaviour.
Behaviour is shaped by both natural selection and reproductive success.
Influences from Medicine
Medicine contributed to the development of clinical psychology, focusing on diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders.
Localization of brain function was studied through phrenology (Gall and Purkinje), which proposed that specific brain areas control specific mental traits.
Sigmund Freud developed psychoanalysis, emphasizing unconscious processes and childhood experiences in shaping behaviour.
Influences from Social Sciences
Psychology was influenced by economics, sociology, and anthropology.
Statistical methods were developed to measure human traits.
Debate over nature vs. nurture continues in psychology.
Major Schools and Perspectives in Psychology
Structuralism
Wilhelm Wundt established psychology as an independent scientific field and developed the first lab.
Focused on introspection and measuring mental effort.
Edward Titchener furthered structuralism by analyzing conscious experience into basic elements.
Functionalism
William James wrote "The Principles of Psychology" and emphasized the purpose and function of behaviour and conscious experience.
Functionalism explains behaviour in terms of adaptation to the environment.
Behaviourism
Dominated North American psychology in the early 20th century.
Focused on observable behaviour, minimizing reference to mental events.
Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner contributed to behaviourist theory.
Skinner emphasized rewards and punishments as key influences on behaviour.
John Watson believed in the "blank slate" (tabula rasa) and emphasized environmental influences.
Classical Conditioning and Childhood Fears
Children often develop fears through classical conditioning, where an object becomes associated with a fearful experience.
Social and Cultural Influences
Social psychology studies the influence of others and social context on behaviour.
Personality psychology examines how different personality traits affect thoughts and actions.
Kurt Lewin is a founder of modern social psychology.
Cognitive Revolution
Gestalt Psychology
Gestalt psychology focuses on the whole of perception and experience, rather than its parts.
Much of our thinking occurs at a higher and more organized level.
Cognitive Psychology
Emphasizes processes such as memory, thinking, and language.
Developed interest in perception and other cognitive processes.
Humanistic Psychology
Principles and Applications
Focuses on the unique aspects of each individual, freedom to act, and rational thought.
Carl Rogers developed Person-Centered Therapy based on humanistic principles.
Emphasizes understanding the person or people being worked with.
Neuroscience: Brain and Behaviour
Canadian Researchers
Donald Hebb (Hebb's Law): "Cells that fire together wire together." Learning involves changes in neural pathways.
Memory is related to activity occurring at the cellular level in the brain.
Wilder Penfield
Treated seizures by mapping out brain function to avoid damaging important areas.
Electrically stimulated brain areas to observe patient sensations and create maps of sensory and motor cortices.
Women in Psychology
Anne Freud and Karen Horney made significant contributions to understanding personality.
Sandra Bem studied sexism and gender roles, examining how stereotypes affect self-perception.
Virginia Satir developed Experiential Family Therapy based on humanism.
Studies in psychology focus on women's health, violence, and experience unique to women.
The Neuroimaging Explosion
Modern Techniques
Functional resonance imaging (fMRI) allows researchers to observe brain activity in real time and create 3D images.
Cognitive neuroscience combines elements of cognitive psychology and biopsychology to study mechanisms underlying memory, emotion, and decision making.
Social neuroscience uses fMRI to study social behaviours, such as relationships and group interactions.
Psychology in the Real World
Applications
Psychology is applied in clinical, workplace, military, and other settings.
Industrial/organizational psychology focuses on improving work environments and employee well-being.
Human factors psychology studies how people interact with technology and environments.
Summary Table: Major Perspectives in Psychology
Perspective | Key Focus | Major Figures |
|---|---|---|
Structuralism | Basic elements of consciousness | Wilhelm Wundt, Edward Titchener |
Functionalism | Purpose and function of behaviour | William James |
Behaviourism | Observable behaviour, learning | Ivan Pavlov, B.F. Skinner, John Watson |
Humanistic | Individual potential, self-actualization | Carl Rogers, Virginia Satir |
Cognitive | Memory, thinking, language | Donald Hebb, Gestalt psychologists |
Biopsychosocial | Biological, psychological, sociocultural factors | Contemporary psychologists |
Key Equations and Concepts
Hebb's Law:
Scientific Hypothesis:
Natural Selection:
Additional info: Some explanations and examples have been expanded for clarity and completeness.
