Foundations and Methods in Psychology: An Overview

Scientific Study of Behaviour and Mental Processes

Introduction to Psychology

Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes. Psychologists aim to describe, predict, and explain human behaviour and mental processes using systematic methods.

• Behaviour: Observable actions of humans and animals.

• Mental Processes: Internal experiences such as thoughts, feelings, and motives.

Psychology’s Past and Present

Historical Roots

Psychology originated from philosophy, with ancient Greeks contemplating the mind. It became a formal scientific discipline in the late 19th century.

• Wilhelm Wundt: Established the first psychology laboratory in 1879, marking the formal beginning of psychology as a science.

• Structuralism: Early school of thought focused on breaking down mental processes into basic components using introspection.

5 Primary Schools of Thought Shaping Modern Psychology

Structuralism

Structuralism aimed to understand the structure of the mind by analyzing its components through introspection.

• Key Figures: Wilhelm Wundt, E.B. Titchener

• Method: Systematic observation and introspection

Functionalism

Functionalism focused on the purpose of mental processes and behaviour, emphasizing how they help individuals adapt to their environment.

• Key Figure: William James

• Influence: Theory of natural selection

Behaviourism

Behaviourism emphasized the study of observable behaviour and the role of environmental factors in shaping behaviour.

• Key Figures: John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner

• Focus: Objective analysis of behaviour, reinforcement, and punishment (operant conditioning)

• Applications: Behavioural therapy, Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT)

Cognitivism

Cognitivism investigates mental processes such as thinking, memory, and interpretation, moving beyond observable behaviour.

• Key Figures: Jean Piaget, Ulric Neisser

• Focus: How thinking affects behaviour; not just reward or punishment, but interpretation

Psychodynamic Perspective

The psychodynamic approach emphasizes the influence of the unconscious mind and early childhood experiences on behaviour.

• Key Figure: Sigmund Freud

• Focus: Unconscious motives, repressed memories, and the role of early experiences

Women in Psychology

Historical Contributions and Barriers

Women have made significant contributions to psychology, often overcoming substantial barriers.

• Esther Greenglass: Only woman in her PhD psychology program at University of Toronto (1967)

• Margaret Floy Washburn: First woman to receive a PhD in psychology (1884)

• Barriers: Social prejudice, exclusion from graduate programs, underrepresentation in faculty positions

How Do We Know What We Know?

Sources of Knowledge

• Authority: Learning from experts or teachers

• Reason: Logical deduction (e.g., "because people usually have one")

• Observation: Direct experience or seeing for oneself

Limits of Common Sense

Common sense can be contradictory and unreliable. Examples include:

• "Absence makes the heart grow fonder" vs. "Out of sight, out of mind"

• "You can’t teach an old dog new tricks" vs. "Never too old to learn"

Naive Realism

The belief that we see the world precisely as it is ("seeing is believing") can be misleading. For example, the Earth seems flat, but scientific evidence shows it is round and orbits the Sun.

Scientific Method

Steps of the Scientific Method

The scientific method is a systematic way of learning about the world through observation, theory development, and prediction.

1. Identify a question of interest

2. Formulate an explanation (theory/hypothesis)

3. Carry out research to support or refute the explanation

Scientific Theory and Hypothesis

• Theory: An explanation for a large number of findings in the natural world

• Hypothesis: A testable prediction about processes that can be observed and measured

Example Theory: The Bystander Effect Hypothesis: The more people present at the scene of an accident, the longer the response time will be

Falsifiability

Scientific claims must be falsifiable, meaning they can be proven false through evidence.

• Example: "All swans are black" can be falsified by observing a non-black swan.

Bias Awareness

Types of Bias

• Confirmation Bias: Tendency to seek out evidence that supports our hypothesis while neglecting or distorting contrary evidence. Example: Police decision making

• Belief Perseverance: Tendency to stick to our initial beliefs even when evidence contradicts them. Example: "Don’t confuse me with facts" bias

Psychological Pseudoscience

Definition and Examples

Pseudoscience consists of claims that appear scientific but lack safeguards against bias and do not adhere to scientific methods.

• Astrology

• Psychic readings

• Fortune telling

• Chiropractic (in some contexts)

• Unconventional medicine

Warning Signs of Pseudoscience

• Use of psychobabble (scientific-sounding but meaningless terms)

• Over-reliance on anecdotal evidence

• Lack of self-correction

Why Are We Drawn to Pseudoscience?

• Patternicity: Tendency to detect meaningful patterns in random stimuli

• Terror Management Theory: Seeking comfort in beliefs to manage anxiety about death

Logical Fallacies in Pseudoscience

• Emotional Reasoning Fallacy: Using emotions rather than evidence

• Bandwagon Fallacy: Believing something is true because many people believe it

• Not Me Fallacy: Believing others have biases but not oneself

Dangers of Pseudoscience

• Opportunity Cost: Wasting time, effort, and resources on ineffective treatments

• Direct Harm: Some pseudoscientific practices can cause harm

• Blocks Critical Thinking: Pseudoscientific beliefs can spill over into critical issues (e.g., stem cell research, GMOs)

Critical Thinking

Critical thinking involves evaluating claims with an open mind, using evidence and logic rather than intuition or emotion. It is essential for distinguishing science from pseudoscience.

Modern Psychology

Two Main Types

• Experimental Psychology: Research-focused, aims to understand fundamental processes

• Clinical Psychology: Focuses on treatment, assessment, and diagnosis of psychological disorders

Branches of Psychology

• Neuropsychology: Study of brain-behaviour relationships

• Child/Developmental Psychology: Study of psychological growth across the lifespan

• Industrial-Organizational (I-O) Psychology: Application of psychology in the workplace

• Sports Psychology: Psychological aspects of athletic performance

• Social/Personality Psychology: Study of social influences and personality traits

• Forensic Psychology: Application of psychology to legal issues

How Psychology Affects Our Lives

• Basic Research: Examines how the mind works

• Applied Research: Uses psychological research to solve real-world problems