Introduction to Psychology: Exam #1 Study Guide (Chapters 1-5)

Chapter 1: The Science of Psychology

Structuralism

Structuralism was one of the earliest schools of psychology, focusing on breaking down mental processes into their most basic components.

• Edward Bradford Titchener: Developed structuralism, emphasizing introspection to analyze conscious experience.

• Wilhelm Wundt: Known as the "father of psychology," established the first psychology laboratory and pioneered experimental methods.

• Key Concept: Introspection—examining one's own thoughts and feelings.

• Example: Participants describe sensations and feelings when exposed to stimuli.

Functionalism

Functionalism focused on the purpose of consciousness and behavior, emphasizing how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environment.

• William James: Major proponent, considered the "father of American psychology."

• Key Concept: Function of behavior and mental processes.

• Example: Studying how memory helps people solve problems.

Behaviorism

Behaviorism emphasizes observable behaviors and the ways they are learned.

• B.F. Skinner: Focused on operant conditioning and reinforcement.

• John Watson: Advocated for psychology as the study of observable behavior.

• Key Concept: Behavior is shaped by environmental stimuli.

• Example: Training animals to perform tasks using rewards.

Evolutionary Theorists

Evolutionary psychology examines how evolutionary principles such as natural selection influence behavior and mental processes.

• Charles Darwin: Proposed that behaviors have evolved to solve adaptive problems.

• Key Concept: Survival and reproduction drive behavior.

Research Methods

Psychologists use various methods to study behavior and mental processes.

• Naturalistic Observation: Observing subjects in their natural environment.

• Case Studies: In-depth analysis of individuals or groups.

• Correlational Research: Examines relationships between variables without manipulating them.

• Experimental Research: Manipulates variables to determine cause and effect.

• Key Terms:

  • Independent Variable: The variable manipulated by the researcher.

  • Dependent Variable: The variable measured for change.

  • Control Group: Group not exposed to the independent variable.

  • Experimental/Treatment Group: Group exposed to the independent variable.

• Example: Testing the effect of sleep on memory by manipulating hours of sleep.

Human Diversity

Psychology considers the impact of human diversity on behavior and mental processes.

• Race: Socially constructed categories based on physical characteristics.

• Ethnicity: Cultural factors such as nationality, language, and traditions.

Chapter 2: Biological Basis of Behavior

Neurons

Neurons are the basic units of the nervous system, responsible for transmitting information throughout the body.

• Parts of the Neuron: Dendrites, cell body (soma), axon, myelin sheath, axon terminals.

• Neural Impulse/Action Potential: Electrical signal that travels down the axon.

• Example: Reflex actions involve rapid transmission of neural impulses.

The Central Nervous System (CNS)

The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord, coordinating all bodily functions and processing information.

• Components: Brain, spinal cord.

• Functions: Integrates sensory information, controls movement, and higher cognitive functions.

The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The PNS connects the CNS to the rest of the body and is divided into the somatic and autonomic systems.

• Components: Nerves outside the CNS.

• Functions: Transmits sensory and motor information.

• Subdivisions:

  • Somatic Nervous System: Controls voluntary movements.

  • Autonomic Nervous System: Regulates involuntary functions (e.g., heart rate).

The Endocrine System

The endocrine system is a network of glands that release hormones to regulate bodily functions.

• Components: Pituitary gland, thyroid, adrenal glands, etc.

• Functions: Controls growth, metabolism, stress responses.

• Example: Adrenal glands release adrenaline during stress.

Genetics

Genetics studies how traits are inherited and how genes influence behavior.

• DNA: Molecule carrying genetic information.

• Identical Twins: Share 100% of their genes.

• Fraternal Twins: Share about 50% of their genes.

• Example: Twin studies help determine the influence of genetics vs. environment.

Chapter 3: Sensation and Perception

Color Vision

Color vision theories explain how humans perceive colors.

• Trichromatic Theory: Three types of cones sensitive to red, green, and blue.

• Subtractive Theory: Mixing pigments removes wavelengths (e.g., paint).

• Additive Theory: Mixing light adds wavelengths (e.g., stage lighting).

• Opponent Colors Theory: Colors are perceived in pairs (red-green, blue-yellow).

• Hue, Saturation, Intensity: Properties of color perception.

• Rods and Cones: Photoreceptors in the retina; rods detect dim light, cones detect color.

Sensory Thresholds

Sensory thresholds refer to the minimum amount of stimulation required to detect a stimulus.

• Difference Threshold (Just-Noticeable Difference): Smallest change in stimulus detectable.

• Sensory Adaptation: Reduced sensitivity to constant stimuli.

• Example: Not noticing the feeling of clothing after wearing it for a while.

Perception of Depth and Distance

Humans use various cues to perceive depth and distance.

• Depth Perception: Ability to judge distance and three-dimensional space.

• Monocular Cues: Require one eye; include interposition, linear perspective, aerial perspective, texture gradient, shadowing, motion parallax/relative motion.

• Binocular Cues: Require both eyes; include retinal disparity and stereoscopic vision.

• Apparent Movement: Perception of movement where none exists.

• Real Movement: Actual movement of objects.

Perceptual Constancy

Perceptual constancy allows us to perceive objects as stable despite changes in sensory input.

• Size Constancy: Perceiving objects as the same size despite changes in distance.

• Shape Constancy: Perceiving objects as the same shape despite changes in angle.

Chapter 4: States of Consciousness

Sleep

Sleep is a natural state of rest, essential for health and well-being.

• Sleep Stages: Four non-REM stages plus REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep.

• REM Sleep: Associated with vivid dreams and memory consolidation.

Dreams

Dreams occur during sleep, often in REM, and can reflect unconscious thoughts and emotions.

• Example: Dreaming about stressful events may help process emotions.

Sleep Disorders

Sleep disorders disrupt normal sleep patterns and can affect health.

• Sleep Apnea: Breathing interruptions during sleep.

• Narcolepsy: Sudden sleep attacks.

• Nightmares: Frightening dreams.

• Night Terrors: Intense fear during sleep, often without memory.

• Insomnia: Difficulty falling or staying asleep.

Circadian Cycles

Circadian cycles are biological rhythms that regulate sleep and wakefulness over a 24-hour period.

• Example: Feeling sleepy at night and alert during the day.

Drug-Altered Consciousness

Psychoactive drugs alter consciousness, mood, and perception.

• Hallucinogens: Cause sensory distortions (e.g., LSD).

• Stimulants: Increase alertness (e.g., caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, cocaine).

• Depressants: Slow down nervous system (e.g., alcohol, barbiturates, opiates).

• Withdrawal: Physical and psychological symptoms after stopping drug use.

Meditation

Meditation is a practice that focuses attention and promotes relaxation.

• Physiological Characteristics: Lowered heart rate, increased alpha brain waves.

• Example: Mindfulness meditation reduces stress.

Chapter 5: Learning

Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is a learning process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus.

• Ivan Pavlov: Demonstrated classical conditioning with dogs.

• Components: Unconditioned stimulus (UCS), unconditioned response (UCR), conditioned stimulus (CS), conditioned response (CR).

• Process: Pairing UCS and CS to elicit CR.

• Example: Bell (CS) paired with food (UCS) causes salivation (CR).

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning involves learning through consequences of behavior.

• B.F. Skinner: Developed operant conditioning theory.

• Reinforcement: Increases likelihood of behavior.

  • Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus.

  • Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus.

• Punishment: Decreases likelihood of behavior.

• Example: Giving candy for good behavior (positive reinforcement).

Cognitive Learning

Cognitive learning involves mental processes such as thinking, knowing, and remembering.

• Latent Learning: Learning that occurs without immediate demonstration.

• Example: Learning a route but not showing it until needed.

Learning by Observation

Observational learning occurs by watching and imitating others.

• Albert Bandura: Studied modeling and observational learning.

• Modeling: Imitating behaviors observed in others.

• 1965 Bobo Doll Experiment: Children imitated aggressive behavior after observing adults.