Introduction to Psychology Exam 2 Study Guide – Step-by-Step Guidance

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Q1. Define consciousness.

Background

Topic: States of Consciousness

This question is testing your understanding of what consciousness is and how psychologists define it.

Key Terms:

Consciousness: Awareness of internal and external stimuli.
Awareness: The ability to perceive, feel, or be cognizant of events.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Start by considering what it means to be "aware" of yourself and your environment.
Think about how psychologists describe consciousness as a spectrum, ranging from full alertness to deep sleep or coma.
Try to phrase a definition that includes both awareness of internal thoughts and feelings, as well as external surroundings.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Consciousness is defined as the awareness of oneself and the environment, including thoughts, feelings, and sensations. It encompasses both internal and external awareness.

Q2. What is a normal state of consciousness versus an altered state of consciousness?

Background

Topic: States of Consciousness

This question is testing your ability to distinguish between typical waking awareness and other states that differ from the norm.

Key Terms:

Normal state of consciousness: Typical waking awareness.
Altered state of consciousness: Any state that differs from normal waking awareness (e.g., sleep, hypnosis, drug-induced states).

Step-by-Step Guidance

Recall what is meant by "normal" waking consciousness—being alert and aware of surroundings.
Think about examples of altered states, such as sleep, meditation, hypnosis, or intoxication.
Compare how awareness, perception, and cognition change in altered states versus normal states.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

A normal state of consciousness refers to full, alert awareness of the environment and oneself. An altered state of consciousness is any condition in which awareness, perception, or cognition is changed from the normal waking state, such as during sleep, hypnosis, or under the influence of drugs.

Q3. Briefly describe the stages of sleep.

Background

Topic: Sleep and Sleep Stages

This question is testing your knowledge of the different stages of sleep and their characteristics.

Key Terms:

NREM (Non-Rapid Eye Movement) sleep: Includes stages 1–3.
REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep: Associated with dreaming.
Sleep cycle: The progression through different sleep stages during the night.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Recall that sleep is divided into NREM and REM stages.
List the NREM stages: Stage 1 (light sleep), Stage 2 (deeper sleep), Stage 3 (deepest sleep).
Describe REM sleep and its features, such as rapid eye movements and vivid dreams.
Think about how the sleep cycle repeats throughout the night.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Sleep consists of several stages: NREM Stage 1 (light sleep), Stage 2 (deeper sleep with sleep spindles), Stage 3 (deepest sleep, also called slow-wave sleep), and REM sleep (characterized by rapid eye movements and dreaming). The cycle repeats multiple times each night.

Q4. What is REM sleep?

Background

Topic: Sleep Stages

This question is testing your understanding of the characteristics and significance of REM sleep.

Key Terms:

REM: Rapid Eye Movement
Dreaming: Most vivid during REM sleep
Muscle atonia: Temporary paralysis of muscles during REM

Step-by-Step Guidance

Recall what the acronym REM stands for.
Think about the main features of REM sleep, such as eye movements, dreaming, and muscle paralysis.
Consider why REM sleep is important for memory and emotional processing.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

REM sleep stands for Rapid Eye Movement sleep. It is a stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, vivid dreams, and temporary paralysis of most muscles. REM sleep is important for memory consolidation and emotional regulation.

Q5. What are the differences between nightmares and night terrors?

Background

Topic: Sleep Disorders

This question is testing your ability to distinguish between two types of sleep disturbances.

Key Terms:

Nightmare: Frightening dream during REM sleep.
Night terror: Intense fear, often during NREM sleep, with physical symptoms.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Recall which sleep stage nightmares typically occur in (REM).
Recall which sleep stage night terrors typically occur in (NREM, especially deep sleep).
Compare the symptoms: nightmares involve vivid dreams and recall, night terrors involve intense fear, screaming, and little or no memory of the event.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Nightmares are frightening dreams that occur during REM sleep and are usually remembered. Night terrors occur during deep NREM sleep, involve intense fear and physical symptoms (like screaming), and are often not remembered.

Q6. What happens to people and animals when sleep deprived over extended periods of time?

Background

Topic: Effects of Sleep Deprivation

This question is testing your understanding of the consequences of chronic sleep deprivation.

Key Terms:

Sleep deprivation: Lack of sufficient sleep.
Cognitive impairment: Problems with thinking, memory, and attention.
Physical effects: Health consequences such as weakened immune system.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Think about how sleep deprivation affects mood, cognition, and physical health.
Consider both short-term and long-term effects, such as irritability, poor concentration, and increased risk of illness.
Recall that severe sleep deprivation can lead to hallucinations and even death in extreme cases (especially in animals).

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Extended sleep deprivation leads to cognitive impairment, mood disturbances, weakened immune function, and increased risk of accidents. In animals, severe deprivation can cause physical health problems and even death.

Q7. Compare and contrast the theories of why we dream and why we sleep.

Background

Topic: Sleep and Dream Theories

This question is testing your ability to summarize and differentiate between major theories about the purpose of sleep and dreaming.

Key Terms:

Restoration theory: Sleep restores body and mind.
Evolutionary theory: Sleep protects and conserves energy.
Activation-synthesis theory: Dreams are the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural activity.
Psychoanalytic theory: Dreams reveal unconscious desires (Freud).

Step-by-Step Guidance

List the main theories for why we sleep (restoration, evolutionary, etc.).
List the main theories for why we dream (activation-synthesis, psychoanalytic, etc.).
Compare how each theory explains the function of sleep and dreams.
Contrast the differences between sleep theories and dream theories.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Sleep theories include restoration (repair and recovery), evolutionary (protection and energy conservation), and information processing (memory consolidation). Dream theories include activation-synthesis (making sense of neural activity), psychoanalytic (unconscious desires), and information processing (processing emotions and memories). Sleep is seen as necessary for health and survival, while dreams are viewed as byproducts or meaningful reflections of mental processes.

Q8. What are circadian rhythms?

Background

Topic: Biological Rhythms

This question is testing your understanding of daily biological cycles and their role in sleep.

Key Terms:

Circadian rhythm: 24-hour biological cycle.
Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN): Brain region regulating circadian rhythms.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Recall that circadian rhythms are daily cycles in biological processes.
Think about examples, such as sleep-wake cycles, body temperature, and hormone release.
Consider how the SCN in the hypothalamus regulates these rhythms.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Circadian rhythms are 24-hour cycles in biological processes, such as sleep and wakefulness, regulated by the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus.

Q9. How are circadian rhythms related to our sleep cycle?

Background

Topic: Sleep Regulation

This question is testing your understanding of how biological rhythms influence sleep patterns.

Key Terms:

Circadian rhythm: Daily biological cycle.
Sleep cycle: Pattern of sleep stages throughout the night.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Recall that circadian rhythms determine when we feel sleepy or alert.
Think about how the sleep cycle fits within the larger circadian rhythm.
Consider the role of light and melatonin in regulating these rhythms.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Circadian rhythms regulate the timing of our sleep cycle by controlling when we feel sleepy or awake, largely through the release of melatonin and response to light.

Q10. Know that the SCN in the hypothalamus regulates circadian rhythms.

Background

Topic: Biological Regulation of Sleep

This question is testing your knowledge of the brain structures involved in sleep regulation.

Key Terms:

SCN: Suprachiasmatic nucleus
Hypothalamus: Brain region involved in homeostasis

Step-by-Step Guidance

Recall the location of the SCN within the hypothalamus.
Think about how the SCN receives information about light and regulates circadian rhythms.
Consider the role of the SCN in controlling melatonin release and sleep-wake cycles.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus is the primary regulator of circadian rhythms, controlling the timing of sleep and wakefulness by responding to light cues.

Q11. Know how light affects melatonin release.

Background

Topic: Hormonal Regulation of Sleep

This question is testing your understanding of how environmental cues influence sleep-related hormones.

Key Terms:

Melatonin: Hormone that promotes sleep
Light: Environmental cue that suppresses melatonin

Step-by-Step Guidance

Recall that melatonin is released by the pineal gland.
Think about how exposure to light, especially blue light, affects melatonin production.
Consider the role of the SCN in mediating this process.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Light exposure suppresses melatonin release by signaling the SCN, which inhibits the pineal gland. Darkness increases melatonin production, promoting sleep.

Q12. Understand the physiological cause and symptoms of jet lag.

Background

Topic: Circadian Rhythm Disruption

This question is testing your understanding of how travel across time zones affects biological rhythms.

Key Terms:

Jet lag: Disruption of circadian rhythms due to rapid travel
Symptoms: Fatigue, insomnia, irritability

Step-by-Step Guidance

Recall that jet lag occurs when the internal clock is out of sync with the external environment.
Think about the physiological cause: mismatch between SCN-regulated rhythms and new time zone.
List common symptoms, such as sleep disturbances and mood changes.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Jet lag is caused by a mismatch between the body's circadian rhythms and the local time after rapid travel across time zones. Symptoms include fatigue, insomnia, irritability, and difficulty concentrating.

Q13. Understand why hitting the snooze button doesn’t improve restfulness.

Background

Topic: Sleep Quality

This question is testing your understanding of sleep cycles and how interruptions affect restfulness.

Key Terms:

Snooze button: Delaying waking by short intervals
Sleep inertia: Grogginess after interrupted sleep

Step-by-Step Guidance

Recall that sleep cycles last about 90 minutes and are disrupted by frequent alarms.
Think about how hitting the snooze button interrupts deep sleep stages.
Consider the concept of sleep inertia and how it affects alertness.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Hitting the snooze button disrupts sleep cycles and increases sleep inertia, leading to greater grogginess and less restfulness compared to waking up after a full sleep cycle.

Q14. Identify the sleep disorders we discussed and briefly describe the symptoms and effects of each.

Background

Topic: Sleep Disorders

This question is testing your knowledge of common sleep disorders and their impact.

Key Terms:

Insomnia: Difficulty falling or staying asleep
Sleep apnea: Breathing interruptions during sleep
Narcolepsy: Sudden sleep attacks
Parasomnias: Unusual behaviors during sleep (e.g., sleepwalking)

Step-by-Step Guidance

List the major sleep disorders covered in class.
Briefly describe the main symptoms of each disorder.
Consider the effects these disorders have on daily functioning and health.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Common sleep disorders include insomnia (difficulty sleeping), sleep apnea (breathing interruptions), narcolepsy (sudden sleep attacks), and parasomnias (abnormal behaviors like sleepwalking). Each disorder affects sleep quality and can lead to daytime fatigue and health problems.

Q15. What is hypnosis? Are there practical uses for hypnosis? If so, what are they? Explain.

Background

Topic: Altered States of Consciousness

This question is testing your understanding of hypnosis and its applications.

Key Terms:

Hypnosis: Altered state of focused attention and increased suggestibility
Practical uses: Pain management, therapy, habit change

Step-by-Step Guidance

Recall the definition of hypnosis as an altered state of consciousness.
Think about how hypnosis is used in clinical settings (e.g., pain control, treating phobias).
Consider the evidence for effectiveness and limitations of hypnosis.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness characterized by focused attention and increased suggestibility. It is used for pain management, treating psychological disorders, and changing habits, though effectiveness varies.

Q16. What is substance abuse?

Background

Topic: Drug Use and Dependence

This question is testing your understanding of the definition and consequences of substance abuse.

Key Terms:

Substance abuse: Harmful use of drugs or alcohol
Dependence: Physical or psychological need for a substance

Step-by-Step Guidance

Recall the definition of substance abuse as using substances in ways that cause harm.
Think about the consequences, such as health problems and impaired functioning.
Consider how substance abuse differs from casual or recreational use.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Substance abuse is the harmful or hazardous use of drugs or alcohol, leading to negative consequences for health, relationships, and daily functioning.

Q17. What are different types of drug dependence? Define withdrawal and tolerance. Differentiate psychological vs. physical dependence.

Background

Topic: Drug Dependence and Effects

This question is testing your understanding of the mechanisms and types of drug dependence.

Key Terms:

Physical dependence: Body needs the drug to function
Psychological dependence: Emotional or mental need for the drug
Withdrawal: Symptoms when stopping the drug
Tolerance: Needing more of the drug for the same effect

Step-by-Step Guidance

List the two main types of dependence: physical and psychological.
Define withdrawal as the symptoms experienced when the drug is discontinued.
Define tolerance as the need for increasing amounts of the drug to achieve the same effect.
Differentiate between psychological and physical dependence based on symptoms and effects.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Drug dependence can be physical (body requires the drug) or psychological (emotional need). Withdrawal refers to symptoms when stopping the drug, and tolerance is needing more for the same effect. Physical dependence involves bodily symptoms, while psychological dependence involves cravings and emotional distress.

Q18. Identify neurotransmitter systems for major drug types (e.g., alcohol → GABA, nicotine → acetylcholine, etc.).

Background

Topic: Neurobiology of Drug Effects

This question is testing your knowledge of which neurotransmitters are affected by different drugs.

Key Terms:

Alcohol: GABA
Nicotine: Acetylcholine
Cocaine: Dopamine
Opioids: Endorphins

Step-by-Step Guidance

List the major drug types discussed in class.
Identify the primary neurotransmitter system affected by each drug.
Consider how these neurotransmitters influence behavior and mood.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Alcohol affects GABA, nicotine affects acetylcholine, cocaine affects dopamine, and opioids affect endorphins. Each drug alters neurotransmitter activity, leading to changes in mood and behavior.

Q19. What are the differences between a stimulant and a depressant?

Background

Topic: Drug Classification

This question is testing your ability to distinguish between two major classes of drugs.

Key Terms:

Stimulant: Increases activity in the nervous system
Depressant: Decreases activity in the nervous system

Step-by-Step Guidance

Recall the effects of stimulants (e.g., increased alertness, energy).
Recall the effects of depressants (e.g., relaxation, sedation).
List examples of each type.
Compare how each class affects the central nervous system.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Stimulants increase nervous system activity, leading to alertness and energy (e.g., caffeine, cocaine). Depressants decrease activity, causing relaxation and sedation (e.g., alcohol, benzodiazepines).

Q20. Identify examples of each type of substance discussed.

Background

Topic: Drug Types and Examples

This question is testing your ability to recall examples of stimulants, depressants, and other drug types.

Key Terms:

Stimulants: Caffeine, nicotine, cocaine
Depressants: Alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines
Opioids: Morphine, heroin
Hallucinogens: LSD, psilocybin

Step-by-Step Guidance

List examples of stimulants, depressants, opioids, and hallucinogens.
Recall which category each example belongs to.
Think about the effects associated with each type.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Stimulants include caffeine, nicotine, and cocaine. Depressants include alcohol, barbiturates, and benzodiazepines. Opioids include morphine and heroin. Hallucinogens include LSD and psilocybin.

Q21. Perspectives on the causes of psychological disorders (supernatural, biological, biopsychosocial, Diathesis-Stress)

Background

Topic: Etiology of Psychological Disorders

This question is testing your understanding of different perspectives on what causes psychological disorders.

Key Terms:

Supernatural: Disorders caused by spiritual or supernatural forces
Biological: Disorders caused by genetics, brain chemistry
Biopsychosocial: Combination of biological, psychological, and social factors
Diathesis-Stress: Vulnerability plus stress triggers disorder

Step-by-Step Guidance

List each perspective and its main explanation for the cause of disorders.
Compare how each perspective differs in focus (e.g., supernatural vs. scientific).
Consider how the diathesis-stress model combines vulnerability and environmental stress.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Supernatural perspective attributes disorders to spiritual forces; biological perspective focuses on genetics and brain chemistry; biopsychosocial combines biological, psychological, and social factors; diathesis-stress model suggests disorders result from a predisposition plus environmental stress.

Q22. Types of disorders, etiologies, classification systems (DSM vs. ICD), and their symptoms (e.g., anxiety disorders, mood disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, personality disorders)

Background

Topic: Classification and Symptoms of Psychological Disorders

This question is testing your knowledge of major disorder types, their causes, and classification systems.

Key Terms:

DSM: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
ICD: International Classification of Diseases
Etiology: Cause of disorder
Anxiety disorders, mood disorders, OCD, PTSD, personality disorders

Step-by-Step Guidance

List the main types of psychological disorders discussed.
Briefly describe the symptoms of each disorder type.
Compare DSM and ICD as classification systems.
Consider the etiologies (causes) for each disorder type.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Major disorder types include anxiety disorders (excessive fear), mood disorders (depression, bipolar), OCD (obsessions and compulsions), PTSD (trauma-related symptoms), and personality disorders (maladaptive traits). DSM and ICD are classification systems. Etiologies vary by disorder, including biological, psychological, and environmental factors.

Q23. What is meant by “etiology.”

Background

Topic: Causes of Disorders

This question is testing your understanding of the term "etiology" in psychology.

Key Terms:

Etiology: Cause or origin of a disorder

Step-by-Step Guidance

Recall that etiology refers to the cause or origin of a psychological disorder.
Think about how etiologies can be biological, psychological, or social.
Consider examples of etiologies for different disorders.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Etiology refers to the cause or origin of a psychological disorder, including biological, psychological, and environmental factors.

Q24. Know psychotherapy approaches/theories and their applications: Behavior Therapy, Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT), advantages of individual and group therapy, play therapy, ECT, collective unconscious, Freud's theory about treatment

Background

Topic: Psychotherapy and Treatment Approaches

This question is testing your knowledge of different therapy approaches and their uses.

Key Terms:

Behavior Therapy: Changing behavior through conditioning
CBT: Changing thoughts and behaviors
Individual vs. group therapy: Advantages and disadvantages
Play therapy: Used with children
ECT: Electroconvulsive therapy
Collective unconscious: Jung's theory
Freud's theory: Psychoanalysis

Step-by-Step Guidance

List the main psychotherapy approaches discussed.
Briefly describe the goals and methods of each approach.
Compare individual and group therapy, noting advantages.
Recall what play therapy and ECT are used for.
Identify who proposed the collective unconscious and Freud's theory about treatment.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Behavior therapy uses conditioning to change behavior; CBT targets thoughts and behaviors; individual therapy offers privacy, group therapy provides support; play therapy helps children express feelings; ECT treats severe depression; collective unconscious is Jung's idea; Freud's theory emphasizes psychoanalysis and uncovering unconscious conflicts.