Introduction to Psychology: Foundations, Methods, and Critical Thinking

Introduction to Psychology

Structuralism

Structuralism was one of the earliest schools of thought in psychology, focusing on breaking down mental processes into their most basic components.

• Wilhelm Wundt & E.B. Titchener

  • Wundt is known as the founder of psychology and created the first psychology lab.

  • Worked with Titchener to study the structure and parts of the mind.

  • Used introspection—looking inward and describing one's own thoughts and feelings.

  • Emphasized systematic observation to understand consciousness scientifically.

Functionalism

Functionalism focused on the functions and purposes of the mind and behavior in adapting to the environment.

• William James

  • First American psychologist.

  • Founded functionalism, emphasizing what the mind does and how behavior helps people adapt.

  • Studied the purpose of mental processes rather than their structure.

  • Ideas influenced by Darwin’s theory of natural selection.

Psychoanalysis

Psychoanalysis is a school of thought that emphasizes the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior.

• Sigmund Freud

  • Studied hysteria (physical symptoms with no medical cause) and neurosis (mental stress or anxiety).

  • Believed many problems come from the unconscious mind.

  • Accessed the unconscious through dream analysis.

  • Focused on early childhood experiences and their effect on behavior.

Behaviouralism

Behaviouralism focuses on observable behavior rather than internal mental states.

• John B. Watson

  • Believed the mind couldn’t be studied objectively.

  • Focused on observable behavior and how to control it.

  • Ideas used in behavioral therapy and CBT (Cognitive Behavioral Therapy).

• B.F. Skinner

  • Focused on how behavior is shaped by consequences.

  • Studied reinforcement (rewards) and punishment as ways to change behavior.

  • Developed operant conditioning—consequences drive future behavior.

Cognitivism

Cognitivism emphasizes the importance of mental processes such as thinking, memory, and problem-solving.

• Jean Piaget & Ulric Neisser

  • Focused on mental processes behind thinking, memory, and problem-solving.

  • Believed thoughts influence behavior, not just rewards or punishments.

  • Emphasized how we interpret and understand the world around us.

How Do We Know What We Know?

Sources of Knowledge

• Authority

• Reason

• Observation

Why We Can’t Always Trust Common Sense

Common sense can be misleading due to cognitive biases and limitations of perception.

• Naive Realism: The belief that what we see is exactly how things are.

• Our senses can be misleading (e.g., the Earth seems flat, but it is round).

• Shows that common sense isn’t always accurate—we must rely on scientific observation and evidence.

Scientific Method in Psychology

The scientific method is a systematic process for understanding the world by collecting observations, forming explanations, and testing predictions.

1. Identify a question or problem of interest.

2. Formulate an explanation or hypothesis.

3. Conduct research to support or refute the explanation.

• Theory: A broad explanation for many findings in the natural world.

• Hypothesis: A testable prediction that can be observed and measured.

Hypotheses must be falsifiable (possible to prove wrong).

Example:

• Theory: The bystander effect.

• Hypothesis: The more people at an accident, the longer it takes for someone to help.

Falsifiability

A hypothesis must be specific enough to be proven false if wrong.

Example:

• "All swans are black"—can be disproved by finding one white swan.

• "Most swans are white, some are gray, some are other colours"—too vague to test.

Bias Awareness

Scientists must recognize and control their own biases.

• Confirmation Bias: Tendency to look for evidence that supports our beliefs and ignore or distort evidence that goes against them. Example: Police focusing only on evidence that supports their first suspect.

• Belief Perseverance: Sticking to our original belief even when proven wrong. Also called the "don’t confuse me with facts" bias.

Pseudoscience and Critical Thinking

Pseudoscience

Pseudoscience refers to beliefs or practices that claim to be scientific but lack supporting evidence and cannot be reliably tested.

• Means fake or false science.

• Includes ideas or practices that sound scientific but aren’t based on real evidence or proper testing.

Example: Horoscopes or palm reading—they seem scientific but can’t be proven or tested.

Warning Signs of Pseudoscience

• Uses psychobabble—fancy or scientific-sounding words with no real meaning.

• Doesn’t self-correct—refuses to change when proven wrong.

• Relies on anecdotes—uses personal stories instead of real evidence.

• Makes big claims without proof—says unbelievable things but offers no solid evidence.

Why We’re Drawn to Pseudoscience

• Patternicity: Our tendency to see patterns or connections in random things.

• Terror Management Theory: We fear death and turn to beliefs that give us meaning and comfort. Tested by increasing mortality salience (making people think about death) to see how it affects beliefs.

The Antidote for Pseudoscience

1. Think scientifically: Question claims and look for real evidence.

2. Separate science from pseudoscience: Check if ideas are testable and based on data.

3. Avoid logical fallacies: Don’t be fooled by emotional or faulty reasoning.

Logical Fallacies in Pseudoscience

• Emotional reasoning fallacy: Using emotions instead of evidence. Example: "It feels wrong, so it must be false."

• Bandwagon fallacy: Believing something just because many others do. Example: "Everyone uses this diet, so it has to work."

• No me fallacy: Thinking only others are biased. Example: "I’m objective—everyone else is influenced."

Dangers of Pseudoscience

1. Opportunity cost: Wasting time, energy, or money on false treatments. Example: Choosing a fake cure instead of real medicine.

2. Direct harm: Can cause physical or psychological harm. Example: Dangerous "healing" methods or untested drugs.

3. Blocks critical thinking: Weakens our ability to question and evaluate real issues. Example: Believing myths about GMOs or stem cell research.

Critical Thinking

• A set of skills used to evaluate claims open-mindedly and carefully.

• Key part of the scientific method.

• Thinking critically = thinking scientifically.

• Not automatic—requires awareness and overcoming biases.

Types and Branches of Psychology

Two Main Types

• Experimental Psychology: Focuses on research and studying behavior and mental processes.

• Clinical Psychology: Focuses on treatment, assessment, and diagnosis of mental disorders (uses the scientist-practitioner model).

Branches of Psychology

• Neuropsychology: Brain and behavior.

• Child/Developmental Psychology: Growth and development.

• Industrial-Organizational (I-O) Psychology: Workplace behavior.

• Sports Psychology: Performance and motivation.

• Social/Personality Psychology: Interactions and traits.

• Forensic Psychology: Law and criminal justice.

How Psychology Affects Our Lives

• Basic Research: Studies how the mind works and builds general knowledge about behavior and mental processes.

• Applied Research: Uses psychological research to solve real-world problems and improve daily life (e.g., therapy, education, business).

Research Methods in Psychology

Research Questions

• What to ask: What do you want to study or learn about?

• Sources for questions:

  • Common sense assumptions—ideas you take for granted.

  • Solving real-world problems—practical issues you want to fix.

  • Understanding how something works—exploring processes or causes.

Research Participants

• Population: The entire group you’re interested in studying. Example: All PSYCH1010 students at York.

• Sample: A smaller group drawn from the population who actually take part. Example: 20 students from PSYCH1010 in your study.

Random Selection

• Everyone in the population has an equal chance of being selected.

• Makes the sample representative of the population.

• Important for generalizable studies (like experiments).

Why Random Selection Matters:

• If the survey is paid, participants might be biased (motivated by money, not random).

• If done over a weekend, only people with free time respond.

• Both cases can skew results—the sample may not reflect the whole population accurately.

Variable vs Operational Definition

• Variable: Any factor that can change in a study.

• Operational Definition: Translating your research question into specific testable procedures that can be measured and observed.

Examples:

• Studying aggression in children (e.g., violent video games).

• Measuring stress levels in university students.

Naturalistic Observation

Definition: Watching and recording behavior in a real-world setting without interfering.

Advantages:

• High external validity—reflects real behavior.

• Provides rich, detailed information.

• Sometimes the only possible way to study a behavior.

Disadvantages:

• Lack of control over variables.

• Can be time- and resource-consuming.

• Risk of observer bias.

• Cannot determine cause and effect.

Example:

• Study how often university students use laptops for non-class activities.

  • Methods: cameras or sitting in class to observe.

Case Studies

In-depth analysis of a single person, group, or setting, including detailed accounts of behavior, history, and other factors.

• Typically produces qualitative data.

• Commonly used to study rare, unusual, or noteworthy phenomena.

Example:

• Russell Williams: Former high-ranking Canadian Colonel in charge of a large military base.

  • Crimes from 2006–2010 included: 82 fetish-motivated burglaries, 4 sexual assaults, 2 murders.