Introduction to Psychology: Key Concepts, Methods, and Approaches

Introduction to Psychology

Overview

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. It encompasses a variety of approaches, theories, and methods to understand how humans think, feel, and act.

Major Schools of Thought in Psychology

Structuralism

• Wilhelm Wundt & E.B. Titchener

• Founded the first psychology lab.

• Studied the structure and parts of the mind.

• Used introspection—looking inward and describing one's own thoughts and feelings.

• Emphasized systematic observation to understand consciousness scientifically.

Functionalism

• William James

• Focused on what the mind does and how behavior helps people adapt to their environment.

• Emphasized the purpose of mental processes rather than their structure.

• Influenced by Darwin’s theory of natural selection—behaviors and thoughts exist because they help us survive and function.

Psychoanalysis

• Sigmund Freud

• Studied hysteria (physical symptoms with no medical cause) and neurosis (mental stress or anxiety).

• Believed many problems come from the unconscious mind.

• Accessed the unconscious through dream analysis.

• Focused on early childhood experiences and their effect on behavior.

Behaviouralism

• John B. Watson

• Believed the mind couldn't be studied objectively.

• Focused on observable behavior and how to control it.

• Ideas used today in behavioral therapy and CBT (Cognitive Behavioral Therapy).

Operant Conditioning

• B.F. Skinner

• Focused on how behavior is shaped by consequences.

• Studied reinforcement (rewards) and punishment as ways to change behavior.

• Developed operant conditioning, showing that consequences drive future behavior.

Cognitivism

• Jean Piaget & Ulric Neisser

• Focused on mental processes behind thinking, memory, and problem-solving.

• Believed thoughts influence behavior, not just rewards or punishments.

• Emphasized how we interpret and understand the world around us.

How Do We Know What We Know?

Sources of Knowledge

• Authority

• Reason

• Observation

Limits of Common Sense

• Naive Realism: The belief that what we see is exactly how things are ("seeing is believing").

• Our senses can be misleading (e.g., the Earth seems flat but is round).

• Common sense isn’t always accurate—we must rely on scientific observation and evidence.

The Scientific Method in Psychology

Process

• A process for understanding the world by collecting observations, forming explanations, and testing predictions.

• Steps:

  1. Identify a question or problem of interest.

  2. Formulate an explanation or hypothesis.

  3. Conduct research to support or refute the explanation.

Theory vs. Hypothesis

• Theory: A broad explanation for many findings in the natural world.

• Hypothesis: A testable prediction that can be observed and measured.

Example:

• Theory: The bystander effect.

• Hypothesis: The more people at an accident, the longer it takes for someone to help.

Falsifiability

• A hypothesis must be specific enough to be proven false if wrong.

• Example: "All swans are black" can be disproved by finding one white swan.

• "Most swans are white, some are grey, some are other colours"—too vague to test.

Bias Awareness in Science

Confirmation Bias

• Tendency to look for evidence that supports our beliefs.

• Ignore or distort evidence that goes against them.

• Example: Police focusing only on evidence that supports their first suspect.

Belief Perseverance

• Sticking to our original belief even when proven wrong.

• Also called the "don’t confuse me with facts" bias.

Pseudoscience

Definition

• Means fake or false science.

• Includes ideas or practices that sound scientific but aren’t based on real evidence or proper testing.

• Example: Horoscopes or palm reading—they seem scientific but can’t be proven or tested.

Warning Signs of Pseudoscience

• Uses psychobabble—fancy or scientific-sounding words with no real meaning.

• Doesn’t self-correct—refuses to change even when proven wrong.

• Relies on anecdotes—uses personal stories instead of real evidence.

• Makes big claims without proof—says unbelievable things but offers no solid evidence.

Why We’re Drawn to Pseudoscience

• Patternicity: Our tendency to see patterns or connections in random things.

• We find comfort in our own beliefs and like making sense of chaos.

Finding Comfort in Our Beliefs

• Terror Management Theory: We fear death because it is unavoidable and unpredictable, so we turn to beliefs or worldviews that give us meaning, purpose, and a sense of control.

• Tested by increasing mortality salience (making people think about death) to see how it affects their beliefs.

The Antidote for Pseudoscience

1. Think scientifically: Question claims and look for real evidence.

2. Separate science from pseudoscience: Check if ideas are testable and based on data.

3. Avoid logical fallacies: Don’t be fooled by emotional or faulty reasoning.

Common Logical Fallacies

• Emotional reasoning fallacy: Using emotions instead of evidence. Example: "It feels wrong, so it must be false."

• Bandwagon fallacy: Believing something just because many others do. Example: "Everyone uses this diet, so it has to work."

• No 'me' fallacy: Thinking only others are biased. Example: "I’m objective—it's everyone else who’s influenced."

Dangers of Pseudoscience

• Opportunity cost: Wasting time, energy, or money on false treatments. Example: Choosing a fake cure instead of real medicine.

• Direct harm: Can cause physical or psychological harm. Example: Dangerous "healing" methods or untested drugs.

• Blocks critical thinking: Weakens our ability to question and evaluate real issues. Example: Believing myths about GMOs or stem cell research.

Critical Thinking in Psychology

• A set of skills used to evaluate claims open-mindedly and carefully.

• Key part of the scientific method.

• Thinking critically = thinking scientifically.

• Not automatic—requires awareness and overcoming biases.

Types and Branches of Psychology

Two Main Types

• Experimental Psychology: Focuses on research and studying behavior and mental processes.

• Clinical Psychology: Focuses on treatment, assessment, and diagnosis of mental disorders (uses the scientist-practitioner model).

Branches of Psychology

Branch	Focus
Neuropsychology	Brain and behavior
Child/Developmental Psychology	Growth and development
Industrial-Organizational (I-O) Psychology	Workplace behavior
Sports Psychology	Performance and motivation
Social/Personality Psychology	Interactions and traits
Forensic Psychology	Law and criminal justice

How Psychology Affects Our Lives

• Basic Research: Studies how the mind works and builds general knowledge about behavior and mental processes.

• Applied Research: Uses psychological research to solve real-world problems and improve daily life (e.g., therapy, education, business).