Introduction to Psychology Midterm Review Guidance

Study Guide - Smart Notes

Tailored notes based on your materials, expanded with key definitions, examples, and context.

Q1. What is the definition of psychology?

Background

Topic: Foundations of Psychology

This question tests your understanding of what psychology is as a discipline and how it is defined in academic contexts.

Key Terms:

Psychology: The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
Behavior: Observable actions of humans and animals.
Mental Processes: Internal experiences such as thoughts, feelings, and perceptions.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Consider what psychology aims to study: both observable behaviors and internal mental processes.
Think about how psychology uses scientific methods to investigate these phenomena.
Try to formulate a definition that includes both behavior and mental processes, and emphasizes the scientific approach.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. It seeks to understand how people think, feel, and act, using systematic observation and experimentation.

Q2. What makes psychology a science?

Background

Topic: Scientific Foundations

This question is about the characteristics that qualify psychology as a science, such as its methods and principles.

Key Terms:

Empirical Evidence: Information acquired by observation or experimentation.
Scientific Method: A systematic approach to research.
Objectivity: Minimizing bias in research.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Reflect on how psychologists gather data—do they rely on opinions or systematic observation?
Consider the role of experiments, hypotheses, and replication in psychology.
Think about how psychology aims to be objective and uses empirical evidence to support its findings.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Psychology is considered a science because it uses the scientific method to collect data, test hypotheses, and draw conclusions based on empirical evidence. This approach ensures objectivity and reliability in understanding behavior and mental processes.

Q3. Who was Freud? What was unique about his psychoanalytic theory?

Background

Topic: Historical Figures in Psychology

This question focuses on Sigmund Freud and his contributions, especially his psychoanalytic theory.

Key Terms:

Sigmund Freud: Austrian neurologist, founder of psychoanalysis.
Psychoanalytic Theory: Emphasizes unconscious motives and conflicts.
Unconscious Mind: Part of the mind outside of conscious awareness.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Recall Freud's background and his role in psychology.
Identify the main features of psychoanalytic theory, such as the focus on the unconscious.
Think about what made Freud's approach different from others at the time (e.g., emphasis on childhood, unconscious processes).

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist who founded psychoanalysis. His theory was unique because it emphasized the influence of the unconscious mind, childhood experiences, and internal conflicts on behavior.

Q4. Who was Watson?

Background

Topic: Historical Figures in Psychology

This question is about John B. Watson and his contributions to psychology, especially behaviorism.

Key Terms:

John B. Watson: American psychologist, founder of behaviorism.
Behaviorism: Focuses on observable behavior rather than internal mental states.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Recall Watson's main area of study and his influence on psychology.
Think about how behaviorism differs from psychoanalytic theory.
Consider Watson's famous experiments and his emphasis on observable behavior.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

John B. Watson was an American psychologist who founded behaviorism, emphasizing the study of observable behavior and rejecting the focus on internal mental processes.

Q5. What are the seven modern perspectives on psychology? Can you give the general idea behind each?

Background

Topic: Contemporary Perspectives

This question tests your knowledge of the main approaches used in modern psychology to explain behavior and mental processes.

Key Terms:

Perspective: A viewpoint or approach to understanding psychology.
Examples: Biological, Behavioral, Cognitive, Humanistic, Psychodynamic, Sociocultural, Evolutionary.

Step-by-Step Guidance

List the seven perspectives commonly recognized in modern psychology.
For each, briefly describe its main focus (e.g., biological looks at genetics and brain structure, behavioral focuses on learning).
Think about how each perspective explains behavior differently.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

The seven modern perspectives are: Biological, Behavioral, Cognitive, Humanistic, Psychodynamic, Sociocultural, and Evolutionary. Each offers a unique explanation for behavior, such as the biological perspective focusing on genetics and the brain, while the cognitive perspective emphasizes mental processes.

Q6. What is the scientific method?

Background

Topic: Research Methods

This question is about the systematic process used in scientific research, including psychology.

Key Terms and Steps:

Scientific Method: A structured approach to inquiry.
Steps: Observation, Hypothesis, Experiment, Analysis, Conclusion.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Recall the main steps involved in the scientific method.
Think about how each step builds on the previous one to ensure reliable results.
Try to outline the process in your own words, emphasizing its systematic nature.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

The scientific method involves making observations, forming a hypothesis, conducting experiments, analyzing data, and drawing conclusions. This process ensures that findings are based on evidence and can be replicated.

Q7. What is an independent variable? A dependent variable?

Background

Topic: Experimental Design

This question tests your understanding of variables in scientific experiments.

Key Terms:

Independent Variable: The variable manipulated by the researcher.
Dependent Variable: The variable measured to see the effect of the manipulation.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Identify which variable is changed or controlled in an experiment.
Determine which variable is observed or measured as a result.
Think of an example experiment and label the variables accordingly.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

The independent variable is the one manipulated by the researcher, while the dependent variable is the outcome measured. For example, in a study on sleep and test scores, hours of sleep is the independent variable and test score is the dependent variable.

Q8. What do we mean when two variables correlate? Positively? Or negatively?

Background

Topic: Correlation in Research

This question is about the relationship between two variables and how they move together.

Key Terms:

Correlation: A statistical relationship between two variables.
Positive Correlation: Both variables increase or decrease together.
Negative Correlation: One variable increases as the other decreases.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Consider what it means for two variables to be related in a predictable way.
Think about examples where both variables move in the same direction (positive) or opposite directions (negative).
Try to explain the difference between positive and negative correlation in your own words.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

When two variables correlate, they have a relationship where changes in one are associated with changes in the other. A positive correlation means both increase or decrease together, while a negative correlation means one increases as the other decreases.

Q9. What are the parts of a neuron?

Background

Topic: Biological Perspective

This question tests your knowledge of neuron structure and function.

Key Terms:

Neuron: A nerve cell that transmits information.
Dendrites: Receive signals.
Cell Body (Soma): Contains the nucleus.
Axon: Sends signals away from the cell body.
Axon Terminals: Transmit signals to other cells.
Myelin Sheath: Insulates the axon.

Step-by-Step Guidance

List the main structural components of a neuron.
Describe the function of each part (e.g., dendrites receive, axon sends).
Think about how these parts work together to transmit information.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

The main parts of a neuron are dendrites, cell body (soma), axon, axon terminals, and myelin sheath. Each part plays a role in receiving, processing, and transmitting information.

Q10. How is information transmitted from one neuron to the next?

Background

Topic: Neural Communication

This question is about the process by which neurons communicate with each other.

Key Terms:

Synapse: The gap between neurons.
Neurotransmitter: Chemical messenger.
Action Potential: Electrical signal.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Recall the role of the action potential in sending signals down the axon.
Think about what happens when the signal reaches the axon terminal.
Consider how neurotransmitters are released into the synapse and bind to receptors on the next neuron.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Information is transmitted from one neuron to the next by an action potential traveling down the axon, causing neurotransmitters to be released into the synapse, where they bind to receptors on the next neuron.

Q11. What does action potential mean?

Background

Topic: Neural Communication

This question is about the electrical process that enables neurons to send signals.

Key Terms:

Action Potential: A rapid change in electrical charge across a neuron's membrane.
Threshold: The level needed to trigger an action potential.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Recall what triggers an action potential (reaching threshold).
Think about how the action potential moves along the axon.
Consider the role of ions in creating the electrical change.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

An action potential is a rapid electrical impulse that travels down a neuron's axon, allowing it to transmit information. It occurs when the neuron's membrane potential reaches a threshold, causing ion channels to open.

Q12. What is the difference between the central and peripheral nervous system? Which part is responsible for 'fight or flight'?

Background

Topic: Nervous System Organization

This question is about the structure and function of the nervous system.

Key Terms:

Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): All nerves outside the CNS.
Sympathetic Nervous System: Part of PNS responsible for 'fight or flight'.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Identify the main components of the CNS and PNS.
Recall which system controls voluntary and involuntary actions.
Think about which part activates the body's response to stress ('fight or flight').

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord, while the peripheral nervous system includes all other nerves. The sympathetic nervous system, part of the PNS, is responsible for the 'fight or flight' response.

Q13. Can you identify the four lobes of the brain? What types of functions are associated with each?

Background

Topic: Brain Structure and Function

This question is about the major lobes of the brain and their roles.

Key Terms:

Frontal Lobe: Planning, reasoning, movement.
Parietal Lobe: Sensory processing.
Temporal Lobe: Hearing, memory.
Occipital Lobe: Vision.

Step-by-Step Guidance

List the four lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital.
Associate each lobe with its primary function (e.g., occipital with vision).
Think about examples of tasks or abilities linked to each lobe.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

The four lobes are frontal (planning, movement), parietal (sensory processing), temporal (hearing, memory), and occipital (vision). Each lobe specializes in different functions.

Q14. What are the three different models of memory?

Background

Topic: Memory Models

This question is about the main theoretical models used to explain how memory works.

Key Terms:

Information-Processing Model
Levels of Processing Model
Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) Model

Step-by-Step Guidance

Recall the names of the three main models.
Briefly describe the focus of each model (e.g., information-processing sees memory as a series of steps).
Think about how each model explains encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

The three models are the information-processing model, levels of processing model, and parallel distributed processing model. Each offers a different explanation for how memory is encoded, stored, and retrieved.

Q15. What are the three stages of memory?

Background

Topic: Memory Stages

This question is about the process of memory formation and retrieval.

Key Terms:

Sensory Memory
Short-Term Memory
Long-Term Memory

Step-by-Step Guidance

List the three stages in order.
Describe the function and duration of each stage.
Think about how information moves from one stage to the next.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

The three stages are sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Information is first registered in sensory memory, then processed in short-term memory, and finally stored in long-term memory.

Q16. Implicit vs. explicit memory: Give an example of each.

Background

Topic: Types of Memory

This question is about the distinction between memories we are aware of and those we are not.

Key Terms:

Implicit Memory: Unconscious, automatic memory (e.g., skills).
Explicit Memory: Conscious, intentional recollection (e.g., facts).

Step-by-Step Guidance

Define implicit and explicit memory.
Think of an example for each (e.g., riding a bike for implicit, recalling a birthday for explicit).
Consider how these types of memory are used in everyday life.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Implicit memory example: riding a bicycle. Explicit memory example: remembering the date of your friend's birthday. Implicit memories are automatic, while explicit memories require conscious recall.

Q17. Methods of problem solving: Different strategies

Background

Topic: Cognitive Perspective

This question is about the various approaches people use to solve problems.

Key Terms:

Algorithm: Step-by-step procedure.
Heuristic: Mental shortcut.
Trial and Error: Trying different solutions.
Insight: Sudden realization.

Step-by-Step Guidance

List the main strategies: algorithm, heuristic, trial and error, insight.
Describe how each strategy works.
Think about examples where each strategy might be used.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Common problem-solving strategies include algorithms (systematic steps), heuristics (shortcuts), trial and error, and insight (sudden solution). Each has advantages and disadvantages depending on the situation.

Q18. What is classical conditioning?

Background

Topic: Learning

This question is about a fundamental learning process first described by Ivan Pavlov.

Key Terms:

Classical Conditioning: Learning by association.
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Naturally triggers a response.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Previously neutral, now triggers response.
Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Recall the basic setup of classical conditioning (e.g., Pavlov's dogs).
Identify the key components: UCS, CS, CR.
Think about how a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a response.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Classical conditioning is a learning process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus, eventually triggering a conditioned response. Pavlov's experiment with dogs is a classic example.

Q19. What is a neutral stimulus? An unconditioned stimulus? Unconditioned response vs. a conditioned response?

Background

Topic: Classical Conditioning

This question is about the terminology and roles of different stimuli and responses in classical conditioning.

Key Terms:

Neutral Stimulus (NS): Does not trigger a response initially.
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Naturally triggers a response.
Unconditioned Response (UCR): Natural reaction to UCS.
Conditioned Response (CR): Learned reaction to CS.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Define each term: NS, UCS, UCR, CR.
Think about how the NS becomes a CS through association.
Consider examples to illustrate the differences.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

A neutral stimulus does not elicit a response until paired with an unconditioned stimulus. The unconditioned stimulus naturally triggers an unconditioned response. After conditioning, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus, eliciting a conditioned response.

Q20. Stimulus generalization vs. stimulus discrimination: What is the difference? What is an example of each?

Background

Topic: Classical Conditioning

This question is about how organisms respond to similar or different stimuli after conditioning.

Key Terms:

Stimulus Generalization: Responding to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus.
Stimulus Discrimination: Responding only to the specific conditioned stimulus.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Define stimulus generalization and discrimination.
Think of examples where an organism responds to similar stimuli (generalization) or only to the original stimulus (discrimination).
Consider why these processes are important in learning.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Stimulus generalization occurs when a response is triggered by stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus. Stimulus discrimination is when the response happens only to the specific conditioned stimulus. For example, a dog conditioned to a bell may respond to similar sounds (generalization) but not to a whistle (discrimination).

Q21. What is extinction in classical conditioning? How does it differ or relate to spontaneous recovery?

Background

Topic: Classical Conditioning

This question is about the processes that weaken or restore conditioned responses.

Key Terms:

Extinction: The disappearance of a conditioned response.
Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of a conditioned response after extinction.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Define extinction and spontaneous recovery.
Think about how repeated presentation of the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus leads to extinction.
Consider how spontaneous recovery can occur after a rest period.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Extinction is when a conditioned response fades after the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus. Spontaneous recovery is when the response reappears after a pause, showing that the learning was not completely erased.

Q22. Taste aversion and biological preparedness: How is biological preparedness related to classical conditioning? What is the survival benefit to quickly acquiring a taste aversion to things after trying it only once?

Background

Topic: Learning and Evolution

This question is about why some associations are learned more easily than others, especially those related to survival.

Key Terms:

Taste Aversion: Avoidance of a food after illness.
Biological Preparedness: Innate tendency to learn certain associations.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Define taste aversion and biological preparedness.
Think about why organisms are predisposed to learn some associations quickly.
Consider the survival advantage of avoiding harmful substances after one negative experience.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Biological preparedness means organisms are naturally inclined to learn certain associations, like taste aversion, quickly. This helps survival by avoiding foods that made them sick after just one exposure.

Q23. Operant conditioning: Who came first, Thorndike or Skinner?

Background

Topic: Learning

This question is about the history of operant conditioning and its key figures.

Key Terms:

Operant Conditioning: Learning through consequences.
Edward Thorndike: Early researcher.
B.F. Skinner: Developed operant conditioning further.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Recall the timeline of research in operant conditioning.
Identify the contributions of Thorndike and Skinner.
Think about which researcher laid the groundwork for the other.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Edward Thorndike came first, introducing the law of effect, which influenced B.F. Skinner's development of operant conditioning.

Q24. What is a reinforcer? What is positive vs. negative reinforcement? What does the 'negative' in negative reinforcement not mean bad?

Background

Topic: Operant Conditioning

This question is about reinforcement and its types in learning theory.

Key Terms:

Reinforcer: Anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior.
Positive Reinforcement: Adding something pleasant.
Negative Reinforcement: Removing something unpleasant.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Define what a reinforcer is.
Distinguish between positive and negative reinforcement.
Clarify that 'negative' means removal, not something bad.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

A reinforcer increases the likelihood of a behavior. Positive reinforcement adds a pleasant stimulus, while negative reinforcement removes an unpleasant one. 'Negative' refers to removal, not something bad.

Q25. What does shaping behavior mean?

Background

Topic: Operant Conditioning

This question is about the process of teaching complex behaviors by reinforcing successive steps.

Key Terms:

Shaping: Reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Define shaping in the context of operant conditioning.
Think about how complex behaviors are broken down into smaller steps.
Consider examples where shaping is used (e.g., animal training).

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Shaping is the process of reinforcing small steps toward a desired behavior, gradually guiding the subject to the final goal. It's commonly used in animal training and behavior modification.

Q26. Observational learning: How does it differ from operant conditioning? What are the four elements of observational learning?

Background

Topic: Learning

This question is about learning by watching others and the key components involved.

Key Terms:

Observational Learning: Learning by observing others.
Operant Conditioning: Learning through consequences.
Four Elements: Attention, Retention, Reproduction, Motivation.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Define observational learning and how it differs from operant conditioning.
List the four elements required for observational learning.
Think about examples where learning occurs by watching others.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Observational learning differs from operant conditioning because it involves learning by watching others, not just through direct consequences. The four elements are attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.

Q27. What is latent learning? Insight learning? Can only humans learn through insight?

Background

Topic: Learning

This question is about types of learning that are not immediately demonstrated and the ability to solve problems suddenly.

Key Terms:

Latent Learning: Learning that is not immediately expressed.
Insight Learning: Sudden realization of a solution.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Define latent learning and insight learning.
Think about examples of each type.
Consider whether animals can demonstrate insight learning.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Latent learning is learning that occurs without immediate demonstration, while insight learning is a sudden solution to a problem. Animals, not just humans, can show insight learning, as seen in studies with chimpanzees.

Q28. Monozygotic and dizygotic twins: What is the difference?

Background

Topic: Human Development

This question is about the types of twins and their genetic similarities.

Key Terms:

Monozygotic Twins: Identical, from one egg.
Dizygotic Twins: Fraternal, from two eggs.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Define monozygotic and dizygotic twins.
Think about how each type is formed.
Consider their genetic similarities and differences.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Monozygotic twins are identical, formed from one fertilized egg that splits, sharing 100% of their genes. Dizygotic twins are fraternal, formed from two separate eggs, sharing about 50% of their genes.

Q29. What is a teratogen? Is it an example of nature or nurture? During which stage can teratogens impact development: germinal stage, embryo or fetal?

Background

Topic: Prenatal Development

This question is about environmental factors that affect development and when they are most impactful.

Key Terms:

Teratogen: Environmental agent causing harm to a developing fetus.
Nature vs. Nurture: Genetic vs. environmental influences.
Stages: Germinal, Embryo, Fetal.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Define teratogen and classify it as nature or nurture.
Identify which developmental stage is most vulnerable to teratogens.
Think about examples of teratogens and their effects.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

A teratogen is an environmental agent (nurture) that can cause harm during prenatal development, especially during the embryonic stage, but can also affect the fetal stage.

Q30. Genes, DNA, chromosomes, recessive and dominant traits.

Background

Topic: Genetics and Development

This question is about basic genetic concepts and how traits are inherited.

Key Terms:

Gene: Unit of heredity.
DNA: Molecule carrying genetic information.
Chromosome: Structure containing DNA.
Dominant Trait: Expressed when present.
Recessive Trait: Expressed only when two copies are present.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Define each term: gene, DNA, chromosome, dominant, recessive.
Think about how traits are passed from parents to offspring.
Consider examples of dominant and recessive traits.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Genes are units of heredity made of DNA, which is organized into chromosomes. Dominant traits are expressed when present, while recessive traits require two copies to be expressed.

Q31. Piaget theory cognitive development 4 stages: In which stage does operant conditioning take place? Abstract thinking? Conservation?

Background

Topic: Cognitive Development

This question is about Piaget's stages and the abilities associated with each.

Key Terms:

Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational, Formal Operational.
Operant Conditioning: Learning through consequences.
Abstract Thinking: Thinking about concepts beyond the concrete.
Conservation: Understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape.

Step-by-Step Guidance

List Piaget's four stages in order.
Identify which stage is associated with operant conditioning, abstract thinking, and conservation.
Think about the characteristics of each stage.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Operant conditioning is most prominent in the sensorimotor stage. Abstract thinking occurs in the formal operational stage. Conservation is understood in the concrete operational stage.

Q32. Vygotsky: What does the zone of proximal development mean?

Background

Topic: Cognitive Development

This question is about Vygotsky's theory and the concept of learning with guidance.

Key Terms:

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): The range between what a learner can do alone and what they can do with help.
Scaffolding: Support provided to help learning.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Define the zone of proximal development.
Think about how learning is enhanced with guidance.
Consider examples of tasks within the ZPD.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

The zone of proximal development is the gap between what a child can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance. It highlights the importance of social interaction in learning.