Introduction to Psychology: Theoretical Perspectives, Scientific Methods, and Research Approaches

Week 1: Introduction to Psychology

Overview of Psychology

Psychology originated as a branch of philosophy, with ancient Greeks contemplating the mind. The formal study of psychology began in the late 19th century.

• Wilhelm Wundt: Established the first psychology lab in 1879, focusing on the structure of the mind using introspection.

• Introspection: The process of examining one's own thoughts and feelings.

Theoretical Perspectives in Psychology

• Structuralism

  • Founded by Wilhelm Wundt and E.B. Titchener.

  • Emphasized systematic observation to study consciousness.

  • Focused on understanding the structure and characteristics of the mind.

• Functionalism

  • Founded by William James, the first American psychologist.

  • Focused on the purpose of cognitive processes and their role in behavior.

  • Influenced by the theory of natural selection.

• Psychoanalytic Perspective

  • Founded by Sigmund Freud.

  • Emphasized the role of unconscious motives and early childhood experiences.

  • Used techniques such as dream analysis.

• Behaviorism

  • Founded by John B. Watson.

  • Focused on observable behavior, rejecting introspection.

  • Major figures: B.F. Skinner (operant conditioning).

• Cognitive Perspective

  • Key figures: Piaget and Neisser.

  • Emphasizes mental processes underlying thinking and interpretation.

  • Thinking affects behavior, focusing on interpretation rather than reward/punishment.

Women in Psychology

• Social prejudice hindered women's participation.

• Women were excluded from graduate programs and underrepresented in faculty positions.

• Male professors earn more than female counterparts in Canada.

Scientific Method in Psychology

The scientific method is a systematic way of learning about the world through observation, developing theories, and making predictions.

1. Identify question of interest

2. Formulate explanation

3. Carry out research to support/refute

Scientific Theory

• An explanation for a large number of findings in the natural world.

• Hypothesis: A testable prediction about processes that can be observed and measured.

• Hypotheses must be falsifiable: able to be proven false.

• Example: The bystander effect hypothesis (the more people present at an accident, the lower the response rate).

Bias Awareness

• Confirmation bias: Tendency to seek evidence that supports our hypothesis and neglect contrary evidence.

• Belief perseverance: Tendency to stick to initial belief even when evidence is contradictory.

Psychological Pseudoscience

• Pseudoscience involves claims that seem scientific but lack defenses from bias.

• Common logical fallacies:

  • Emotional reasoning fallacy: Using emotions rather than evidence.

  • Bandwagon fallacy: Believing something is true because many people do.

  • Not me fallacy: Believing others have biases, but not oneself.

• Opportunity cost: Investing time, energy, or effort into questionable treatment.

• Direct harm: Some pseudoscientific claims can cause direct harm.

Critical Thinking

• Key to scientific method.

• Involves thinking critically and scientifically, overcoming biases.

Modern Psychology: Types

• Experimental psychology: Research focused.

• Clinical psychology: Assessment, diagnosis, and treatment.

• Branches: neuropsychology, social/personality psychology, child/developmental psychology, forensic psychology.

Week 2: Research Methods

Facilitated Communication

A controversial and scientifically discredited technique claiming to enable communication for non-speaking persons.

Sources of Research Questions

• Common sense assumptions

• Observations in the real world

• Solving real-world problems

• Understanding how something works

Populations vs. Samples

• Population: Entire group of people of interest.

• Sample: Smaller group drawn from the population.

• Random selection: Key for generalizability; ensures every person has an equal chance of being selected.

Operational Definition

• Translating research questions into specific, testable procedures.

• Example: Studying aggression in children.

The Methods Toolbox

1. Naturalistic Observation

Watching behavior in a natural/real-world setting.

Advantages	Disadvantages
High external validity (generalizable) Rich, detailed information Sometimes the only possible option	Lack of control Time and resource consuming Observer bias Cannot draw cause & effect conclusions

Example: Observing university students using laptops in class for non-class related reasons.

2. Case Study

An in-depth analysis of a single person or setting, including detailed descriptive accounts of behavior, history, and other factors.

• Qualitative data: Useful for rare, unusual, or noteworthy phenomena.

Advantages	Disadvantages
Rich, detailed descriptions and data Sometimes the only possible method	Low external validity Researcher bias

Example: Brain injuries, medical/clinical diagnosis, rare diagnosis.

Russell Williams: A Case Study

• Former distinguished Canadian Colonel

• In charge of one of largest military bases

• Crimes: 2006-2010

• 82 instances of fetish-motivated burglary

3. Self-Report Methods

Collecting data via asking participants to describe their own behaviors, attitudes, views, perceptions.

• Issues: Assumption that people answer honestly; careless/random responding; misunderstanding questions.

• Social desirability bias: Tendency to respond inaccurately to present oneself in a positive light.

Reliability and Validity

• Reliability: Consistency of measurement.

  • Test-retest reliability: Correlation between scores at Time 1 and Time 2.

  • Inter-rater reliability: Consistency between different raters.

• Validity: Extent to which a measure assesses what it claims to measure.

  • High validity: Accurately measures intended construct.

  • Example: Feline preference scale (Likert scale items).

4. Correlational Research

Examines the strength of relationship between variables. Variables are observed, not manipulated.

• Correlation coefficient range: $-1.0$ to $+1.0$ (positive, negative, or zero).

• Higher values mean stronger relationship.

• Scatter plots: Visual representation of relationships.

Example: Relationship between texting speed and relationship drama; video games and aggression.

Correlation vs. Causation

• Correlation does not imply causation.

• Many possible explanations: A → B, B → A, A & B caused by C.

• Determining causation requires experimentation.

Third Variables/Confounds

• Third variable: An outside factor influencing both variables.

• Example: Kids who are happier than kids without dogs.

Correlational/Non-Experimental Designs: Pros & Cons

Advantages	Disadvantages
Can establish trends across large amounts of data Good for describing behavior Some best to use for ethical reasons	Cannot infer causal direction Third-variable problem (confounding variable)

5. Experimental Research

Research that focuses on determining causal influence between variables.

• Independent variable (IV): Manipulated by researcher.

• Dependent variable (DV): Affected by changes in IV; measured by researcher.

• Random assignment: Participants assigned to experimental or control group.

Experimental Design

• Internal validity: Relates to how well a study is designed and conducted.

• External validity: Degree of generalizability.

• Confound variable: Threatens internal validity.

Stanford Marshmallow Experiment

• Delay of gratification test.

• Results: Preschoolers' delay times were significantly affected by experimental conditions.

• Long-term replication: Delay time related to later outcomes (SAT scores, BMI, etc.).

Pitfalls of Experiments

• Expectancy effect: Changes in participant behavior caused by expectations of researcher/observer.

• Demand characteristics: Cues in research setting that lead participants to guess the study's purpose.

Ethical Guidelines for Human Research

• Informed consent

• Protection from harm and discomfort

• Deception and debriefing

When is it OK to Inform?

• Purely observational research

• Special populations (e.g., minors or assent)

Summary Table: Research Methods

Method	Advantages	Disadvantages
Naturalistic Observation	High external validity, rich data	Lack of control, observer bias
Case Study	Rich, detailed data	Low external validity, researcher bias
Self-Report	Efficient, can access internal states	Social desirability bias, misunderstanding
Correlational	Trends, large data sets	Cannot infer causation, third-variable problem
Experimental	Can infer causation	May lack external validity, ethical concerns

Key Terms and Concepts

• Introspection: Examining one's own thoughts and feelings.

• Structuralism: Study of the structure of the mind.

• Functionalism: Study of the purpose of mental processes.

• Psychoanalysis: Study of unconscious motives.

• Behaviorism: Study of observable behavior.

• Cognitive Psychology: Study of mental processes.

• Validity: Accuracy of a measure.

• Reliability: Consistency of a measure.

• Correlation coefficient: $r$, ranges from $-1.0$ to $+1.0$.

• Independent variable (IV): Manipulated variable.

• Dependent variable (DV): Measured outcome.

Additional info: Some explanations and examples have been expanded for clarity and completeness.