Language, Thinking, and Reasoning: Foundations and Applications in Psychology

Language

Definition and Importance

Language is the communication of information through symbols arranged according to rules. It is central to communication and is closely tied to the way we think and understand the world. Language develops even in the absence of formal instruction, and language acquisition follows similar patterns across cultures.

• Language: A structured system of communication using words, symbols, or gestures.

• Develops naturally in humans, even without explicit teaching.

• Essential for expressing thoughts, emotions, and intentions.

Phonemes: The Ingredients of Language

Phonemes are the basic categories of sound produced by our vocal apparatus. They are the smallest units of sound that distinguish meaning in a language.

• Most words are made of two or more phonemes.

• Phonemes can be spelled differently (e.g., 'bait', 'weight', 'plate').

• English uses 26 letters but has 40–45 phonemes.

Cross-Linguistic Differences

• Hawaiian language has few phonemes.

• Japanese has a single sound category for both 'L' and 'R' sounds.

Morphemes & Syntax

• Morphemes: The smallest units of meaning in a language. Most morphemes are words, but some (like prefixes 're-', 'un-') modify meaning.

• Syntax: The set of rules for constructing sentences. Syntax determines the order and structure of words in a sentence (e.g., 'Pizza ate I for dinner' does not follow English syntax).

Nonverbal Gestures & Culture

Nonverbal communication, such as gestures, varies across cultures and can convey different meanings. Understanding these differences is crucial for effective cross-cultural communication.

Language Acquisition & Deprivation

Critical Period

The critical period hypothesis suggests that proficiency in acquiring language is maximal early in life. Being deprived of language during this period impedes the ability to fully acquire and use language.

• Cases like 'Genie' support the existence of a critical period, though other factors may complicate outcomes.

• Younger individuals learn new languages more easily ('less is more' theory).

Bilingualism: The Earlier the Better

Research shows that the earlier a person is exposed to a second language, the higher their proficiency. Early exposure leads to more native-like fluency.

Language Development

Babbling

• 1–2 months: Cooing (vowel-like sounds).

• 4–10 months: Babbling (consonant sounds).

• Infants initially babble all possible sounds, but by 6–8 months, they specialize in the sounds of their native language.

• Born with the ability to recognize all phonemes; unused sounds are pruned away by the brain.

Words & Phrases

• 8–16 months: Single-word stage (e.g., 'up', 'mama').

• 24 months: Two-word stage (e.g., 'More juice', 'All gone').

• Telegraphic speech: Short, essential words (e.g., 'I show book').

Sentences & More

• By age 3: Children make plurals and use past tense, but may overgeneralize rules (e.g., 'runned', 'the fishes').

• By age 5: Most basic rules of language are acquired.

How Do Children Acquire Language?

Approach	Main Points
Learning-Theory	Follows principles of reinforcement and conditioning. Children are praised for using language. More parental speech leads to greater proficiency. Does not fully explain acquisition of grammar rules.
Nativist	Children are born with basic knowledge of language. "Language organ" or language acquisition device is pre-programmed. Genes related to language abilities. Difficult to falsify empirically.
Interactionist	Children are pre-programmed with hardware, but develop language through exposure and environment. Adults act as directors for language acquisition (not pure imitation). Environment produces differences in language use and vocabulary.

Guugu Yimithirr Language

• Traditional language of the Guugu Yimithirr people of Far North Queensland (indigenous).

• No words for 'left' or 'right'; use cardinal directions (north, east, south, west) for communication.

• Example: "Pick up that item with your west-facing hand."

How Does Language Shape Our Thinking?

Linguistic Relativity (Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis)

The language we speak influences how we think, understand, and perceive the world.

• Egocentric (self-centered) vs. geocentric (earth-centered) spatial orientation.

• Time perception and metaphors differ across languages.

• Language can influence how blame is assigned in events.

Thinking & Reasoning

Thinking

• Manipulation of mental representations of information.

• Cognitive economy: Humans are 'cognitive misers', seeking to minimize mental effort.

Top-Down Processes

• Streamline cognitive functioning by using pre-existing knowledge to fill in gaps.

• Reduce cognitive effort and speed up processing.

Concepts & Prototypes

• Prototype: The best or most typical example of a concept (e.g., a 'table').

• Concept: Our knowledge and ideas about a set of objects, actions, or characteristics that share core properties.

• Prototypes can lead to biased judgments, reinforce stereotypes, and cause us to overlook information that does not match the prototype.

Cognitive Obstacles

• Mental set: Becoming stuck in a specific problem-solving strategy, inhibiting the ability to generate alternatives.

• Functional fixedness: Difficulty conceptualizing that an object typically used for one purpose can be used for another.

Reasoning/Problem Solving

• Algorithm: A rule that, if applied appropriately, guarantees a solution to the problem. Only works for well-defined problems and can be time-consuming.

• Heuristic: A general problem-solving framework (shortcuts, rules of thumb) that simplifies decision-making but can introduce errors.

• Obstacles include cognitive biases, mental sets, and functional fixedness.

Why Are Heuristics Useful (and Necessary)?

• Impossible to always consider all information.

• Reduce mental effort needed to make decisions.

• Simplify the decision-making process.

• Are often correct, but can lead to costly errors.

Types of Heuristics

• Representativeness heuristic: Judging the probability of an event based on how similar it is to a prototype or stereotype. Can lead to the base rate fallacy (ignoring statistical information).

• Availability heuristic: Estimating the frequency or probability of an event based on how easily examples come to mind (e.g., news stories about rare events make them seem more common).

• Anchoring heuristic: Relying on an initial piece of information (the anchor) to make subsequent judgments or decisions.

Table: Anchoring in Court Study (Englich & Mussweiler, 2001)

When Prosecutor Sought	Judge's Sentence
12 months	18.70 months
34 months	28.78 months

Additional info: This table demonstrates how judges' sentencing decisions can be influenced by the prosecutor's recommendation (the anchor).

Framing

The way a question or statement is formulated can influence decision-making. For example, gain vs. loss framing and survival vs. mortality framing can lead to different choices, even when the underlying information is the same.

• "We can treat your cancer with surgery, which has a 90% post-procedure survival rate and a 34% five-year survival rate" (gain frame).

• "We can treat your cancer with surgery, which has a 10% post-procedure fatality rate and a 66% five-year fatality rate" (loss frame).

COVID-19 & Framing

• Loss-framed messages increased anxiety but had no impact on policy attitudes, behavioral intentions, or information seeking (across 84 countries).

• Emotional toll of loss-framed messages can be significant.

Hindsight Bias

• The tendency to overestimate how well we could have predicted something after it has already occurred.

• People believe their judgment is better than it actually is.

• This disconnect clouds judgment and impairs learning from past mistakes.

Monday Morning Quarterback Phenomenon

• Describes someone who says how an event or problem should have been dealt with by others after it has already been resolved.

Confirmation Bias & Belief Perseverance

• Confirmation bias: The tendency to search for or pay attention only to evidence that confirms one's beliefs, ignoring evidence that might disconfirm them.

• Belief perseverance: Maintaining a belief even in the face of evidence against it.

Maximizing & Satisficing

• Satisficers: Settle for "good enough" options.

• Maximizers: Evaluate every option to find the best.

• Paradox of choice: Having more options can lead to less satisfaction.

	6 Alternatives	30 Alternatives	Difference
Maximizers	5.64	4.73	-0.91
Satisficers	5.44	6.00	+0.46

Additional info: Satisficers tend to be more satisfied when faced with more options, while maximizers experience decreased satisfaction.

The Downside of Heuristics & Cognitive Shortcuts

• Heuristics can lead to costly errors and bias, especially in high-stakes situations (e.g., wrongful convictions, stereotypes, prejudice).

• Media coverage can reinforce stereotypes and racialization of crime (availability heuristic).

• There is an accuracy-effort trade-off in decision-making.

Case Studies

• Guy Paul Morin: Wrongfully convicted due to being perceived as a 'weird guy'—an example of the dangers of representativeness heuristic and stereotyping.

• Amanda Knox: Accused and convicted based on circumstantial evidence and media portrayal; later acquitted. Illustrates the impact of cognitive biases and stereotypes in high-profile cases.