Language, Thinking, and Reasoning: Foundations and Applications in Psychology

Language

Definition and Importance

Language is the communication of information through symbols arranged according to rules. It is central to communication and closely tied to the way we think and understand the world. Language develops even in the absence of formal instruction and follows similar acquisition patterns across cultures.

• Language acquisition can occur without formal teaching.

• Patterns of language development are consistent cross-culturally.

Phonemes: The Ingredients

Phonemes are the smallest units of sound in a language. They are the basic building blocks of spoken words.

• Categories of sound produced by the vocal apparatus.

• Most words are made of two or more phonemes.

• Phonemes can be spelled differently (e.g., 'bait', 'weight', 'plate').

• English: 26 letters, but 40–45 phonemes.

Cross-linguistic differences:

• Hawaiian has few phonemes.

• Japanese has a single sound category for both 'L' and 'R'.

Morphemes & Syntax

Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning in a language. Most morphemes are words, but some (like prefixes) modify meaning.

• Examples: 're-' in 'redo', 'un-' in 'undo'.

Syntax refers to the set of rules for constructing sentences. Syntax determines the order and combination of words.

• Example: 'Pizza ate I for dinner' does not follow English syntax, though it may in other languages.

Nonverbal Gestures & Culture

Nonverbal communication, such as gestures, varies across cultures and can convey different meanings depending on context.

• Examples: Peace sign, thumbs up, and other hand gestures.

Language Acquisition & Deprivation

Critical Period

The critical period is a developmental window during which language acquisition occurs most easily and proficiently. Deprivation during this period impedes full language development.

• Case study: 'Genie'—deprivation during the critical period led to severe language deficits.

• Younger individuals learn new languages more easily ('less is more' theory).

Bilingualism: The Earlier the Better

Early exposure to multiple languages leads to higher proficiency. The earlier a second language is learned, the better the outcome.

Language Development

Babbling

• 1–2 months: Cooing (vowel sounds).

• 4–10 months: Babbling (consonant sounds).

• Infants initially babble all possible phonemes, but by 6–8 months, they specialize in the sounds of their native language.

• Brains prune away sounds not needed for their language.

Words & Phrases

• 8–16 months: Single-word stage (e.g., 'up', 'mama').

• 24 months: Two-word stage (e.g., 'More juice', 'All gone').

• Telegraphic speech: Short, essential words (e.g., 'I show book').

Sentences & More

• By age 3: Children use plurals and past tense but may overgeneralize (e.g., 'runned', 'the fishes').

• By age 5: Most basic rules of language are acquired.

How Do Children Acquire Language?

Approach	Description
Learning Theory	Language is learned through reinforcement and conditioning. Children are praised for using language. More parental speech leads to greater proficiency. Does not fully explain grammar acquisition.
Nativist	Children are born with innate knowledge of language ('language organ' or language acquisition device). Genes may be related to language abilities. Difficult to falsify.
Interactionist	Children are pre-programmed with hardware but develop language through exposure and environment. Adults guide language acquisition. Environmental differences shape language use.

Guugu Yimithirr Language

• Indigenous language of Far North Queensland, Australia.

• No words for 'left' or 'right'; uses cardinal directions (north, east, south, west).

• Example: 'Pick up that item with your west-facing hand.'

How Does Language Shape Our Thinking?

Linguistic Relativity (Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis)

The language we speak influences how we think, understand, and perceive the world.

• Egocentric (self-centered) vs. geocentric (earth-centered) spatial references.

• Time perception and metaphors differ across languages.

• Language can influence how blame is assigned.

Thinking & Reasoning

Thinking

Thinking involves the manipulation of mental representations of information. Humans are cognitive misers, seeking to minimize mental effort.

• Top-down processes: Use pre-existing knowledge to fill in gaps, speeding up cognitive processing and reducing complexity.

Concepts & Prototypes

• Prototype: The best or most typical example of a concept (e.g., a table).

• Concept: Our knowledge and ideas about a set of objects, actions, or characteristics that share core properties.

• Prototypes can lead to biased judgments and reinforce stereotypes.

Cognitive Obstacles

• Mental set: Becoming stuck in a specific problem-solving strategy, inhibiting alternative solutions.

• Functional fixedness: Difficulty seeing that an object can be used for purposes other than its typical use.

Reasoning/Problem Solving

• Algorithm: A rule that guarantees a solution if applied correctly. Effective for well-defined problems but time-consuming.

• Heuristic: General problem-solving framework (shortcuts or rules of thumb). Useful but can introduce bias.

Why Are Heuristics Useful (and Necessary)?

• Impossible to consider all information at once.

• Reduce mental effort and simplify decision-making.

• Often correct, but can lead to costly errors.

Types of Heuristics

• Representativeness heuristic: Judging likelihood based on similarity to a prototype or stereotype. Can lead to base rate fallacy (ignoring statistical information).

• Availability heuristic: Estimating frequency or probability based on how easily examples come to mind (e.g., news coverage of rare events).

• Anchoring heuristic: Relying on an initial piece of information (the anchor) to make decisions.

Table: Anchoring in Court Study (Englich & Mussweiler, 2001)

When Prosecutor Sought	Judge's Sentence
12 months	18.70 months
34 months	28.78 months

Additional info: This table shows that judges' sentences were influenced by the prosecutor's recommendation, demonstrating the anchoring effect.

Framing

The way a question or statement is formulated can influence decision-making. Gain vs. loss framing and survival vs. mortality framing are common examples.

• Example: '90% survival rate' vs. '10% fatality rate' for the same medical procedure.

COVID-19 & Framing

• Loss-framed messages increased anxiety but did not affect policy attitudes or behavioral intentions (across 84 countries).

• Emotional toll of loss-framed messages can be significant.

Hindsight Bias

• Tendency to overestimate how well we could have predicted an outcome after it has occurred.

• People believe their judgment is better than it is, which clouds learning from past mistakes.

Monday Morning Quarterback Phenomena

• Describes someone who criticizes or suggests better solutions after an event has already happened.

Confirmation Bias & Belief Perseverance

• Confirmation bias: Seeking out evidence that confirms one's beliefs while ignoring disconfirming evidence.

• Belief perseverance: Maintaining a belief even when faced with contradictory evidence.

Maximizing & Satisficing

• Satisficers: Settle for 'good enough' options.

• Maximizers: Evaluate every possible option, which can lead to less satisfaction (paradox of choice).

	6 Alternatives	30 Alternatives	Difference
Maximizers	5.64	4.73	-0.91
Satisficers	5.44	6.00	+0.46

Additional info: Satisficers report higher satisfaction when faced with more choices, while maximizers report lower satisfaction.

The Downside of Heuristics & Cognitive Shortcuts

• Can lead to costly errors and bias, especially in high-stakes situations (e.g., wrongful convictions, stereotypes, prejudice).

• Media coverage can reinforce stereotypes (e.g., racialization of crime).

• There is a trade-off between accuracy and effort.

Case Studies

• Guy Paul Morin: Wrongfully convicted due to being perceived as a 'weird guy'—an example of representativeness heuristic leading to error.

• Amanda Knox: Media and public bias influenced by her behavior and appearance, leading to wrongful conviction and later acquittal.