Learning & Behavior: Classical, Operant, and Observational Conditioning in Psychology

Learning & Behavior in Psychology

Introduction

This study guide covers foundational concepts in learning and behavior, focusing on classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. These topics are central to behavioral psychology and explain how organisms adapt to their environments through experience.

What is Learning?

Definition and Overview

• Learning is a long-lasting change in potential behavior that results from experience.

• Behavioral psychology emphasizes observable changes in behavior rather than internal mental processes.

• Main theories in the behavioral tradition include classical conditioning (Pavlov & Watson) and instrumental/operant conditioning (Thorndike & Skinner).

Classical & Operant Conditioning: Comparison

Similarities and Differences

Both classical and operant conditioning are learning processes based on association, but they differ in their mechanisms and applications.

Classical Conditioning	Both	Operant Conditioning
Learning occurs when two stimuli are paired together. Results in a new, learned response. Focuses on involuntary, automatic behaviors.	Explain how organisms change as a result of environmental experiences. Based on the principle of association. Ignore "mental" processes (thoughts, beliefs). Share many concepts (e.g., stimulus, generalization).	Learning occurs when a voluntary behavior is influenced by its consequences. Focuses on voluntary, goal-directed behaviors.

Classical Conditioning

Basic Principles

Classical conditioning describes how a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus, resulting in a learned response. Ivan Pavlov's experiments with dogs are the most famous example.

• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally elicits an unlearned response (e.g., food).

• Unconditioned Response (UCR): The automatic, unlearned response to the UCS (e.g., salivation).

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with the UCS, elicits a response.

• Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the CS.

Example: In Pavlov's experiment, the sound of a bell (CS) was paired with food (UCS), causing the dog to salivate (UCR). Eventually, the bell alone elicited salivation (CR).

Key Terms Table

Term	Definition	Example
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)	Stimulus that elicits an unlearned, automatic response	Food
Unconditioned Response (UCR)	Unlearned, automatic response to UCS	Salivation
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)	Neutral stimulus that elicits a response after association with UCS	Bell
Conditioned Response (CR)	Learned response to CS	Salivation to bell

Operant Conditioning

Basic Principles

Operant conditioning explains how voluntary behaviors are shaped by their consequences. B.F. Skinner and Edward Thorndike were key figures in developing this theory.

• Law of Effect: Behaviors followed by pleasant outcomes are likely to be repeated; those followed by unpleasant outcomes are less likely to be repeated.

• Reinforcement: Increases the likelihood of a behavior.

• Punishment: Decreases the likelihood of a behavior.

Types of Reinforcement

• Positive Reinforcement: Adding something positive after a behavior (e.g., praise, reward).

• Negative Reinforcement: Removing something negative after a behavior (e.g., stopping loud noise).

Example: A child receives praise for completing homework (positive reinforcement), or a loud alarm stops when the child gets out of bed (negative reinforcement).

Reinforcement Schedules

• Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcer presented for every occurrence of the behavior; leads to rapid learning but also rapid extinction.

• Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement: Reinforcer presented only some of the time; learning is slower but more resistant to extinction.

Schedule Type	Basis	Example
Ratio	Number of behaviors	Reward after every 5 responses
Interval	Passage of time	Reward after every 10 minutes

Observational Learning

Definition and Application

Observational learning occurs when an individual acquires new behaviors by watching others. Albert Bandura's Bobo Doll study demonstrated that children imitate aggressive behaviors observed in adults.

• Attention: Observing the model's behavior.

• Retention: Remembering what was observed.

• Motor Reproduction: Ability to reproduce the behavior.

• Reinforcement: Motivation to perform the behavior, often influenced by observed consequences.

Example: A child learns to tie their shoes by watching a parent.

Applications and Examples

Phobias and Conditioning

• Phobias may develop through classical conditioning, where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a traumatic event.

• Extinction can occur when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

Example: A person develops a fear of dogs after being bitten (classical conditioning), but the fear may diminish if they encounter friendly dogs without negative consequences (extinction).

Summary Table: Key Concepts in Learning

Concept	Definition	Key Figure
Classical Conditioning	Learning by association between stimuli	Pavlov, Watson
Operant Conditioning	Learning by consequences of behavior	Thorndike, Skinner
Observational Learning	Learning by watching others	Bandura

Key Equations

• Classical Conditioning Association: $CS + UCS \rightarrow UCR$

• After Conditioning: $CS \rightarrow CR$

• Operant Conditioning Rate: $\text{Rate} = k[\text{Behavior}][\text{Consequence}]$ Additional info: This equation is a conceptual representation; actual operant conditioning rates are determined empirically.

Conclusion

Understanding classical, operant, and observational learning provides a foundation for analyzing how behavior is acquired and modified. These principles are widely applicable in education, therapy, and everyday life.