Learning: Classical and Operant Conditioning in Psychology

Learning

Introduction to Learning

Learning in psychology refers to a relatively permanent change in behaviour or thought as a result of experience. It is a foundational concept that explains how organisms adapt to their environment through acquiring new knowledge, skills, or responses.

• Definition: Learning is the process by which experience produces a lasting change in an individual's behaviour or mental processes.

• Types of Learning: The two primary forms are Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning.

Classical Conditioning

Basic Concepts and Terminology

Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli, resulting in a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus. This process was first described by Ivan Pavlov through his experiments with dogs.

• Unconditioned Stimulus (US): An unlearned stimulus that automatically triggers a response (e.g., food causing salivation).

• Unconditioned Response (UCR): The unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (e.g., salivation in response to food).

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): An originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with the US, comes to trigger a conditioned response (e.g., bell).

• Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the conditioned stimulus (e.g., salivation in response to the bell).

Processes in Classical Conditioning

• Extinction: The diminishing of a conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus no longer follows the conditioned stimulus.

• Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a pause.

• Generalization: The tendency for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

• Discrimination: The learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

Example: Pavlov's Dogs

• Pavlov paired the sound of a bell (CS) with food (US), causing dogs to salivate (UCR). Eventually, the bell alone elicited salivation (CR).

Operant Conditioning

Basic Concepts and Terminology

Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which the consequences of behaviour are manipulated to increase or decrease the frequency of a response, or to shape a new response. This concept was developed by B.F. Skinner.

• Reinforcer: Any event that strengthens the behaviour it follows.

• Punisher: Any event that weakens or suppresses the behaviour it follows.

• Positive: Involves the addition of a stimulus.

• Negative: Involves the removal of a stimulus.

• Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase behaviour (e.g., giving a treat for good behaviour).

• Negative Reinforcement: Removing an aversive stimulus to increase behaviour (e.g., turning off a loud noise when a correct response is made).

• Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease behaviour (e.g., scolding).

• Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease behaviour (e.g., taking away a toy).

Shaping

• Shaping: Gradually guiding behaviour toward a desired goal by reinforcing successive approximations to the target behaviour.

• Example: Teaching a child to clean their room by rewarding them for picking up toys, then for making the bed, and so on.

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Continuous Reinforcement: Every correct response is reinforced.

• Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement: Only some correct responses are reinforced, which is more typical in everyday life.

• Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement after a set number of responses (e.g., reward after every 5th response).

• Variable Ratio: Reinforcement after a varying number of responses (e.g., slot machines).

• Fixed Interval: Reinforcement after a set period of time (e.g., weekly paycheck).

• Variable Interval: Reinforcement after varying time intervals (e.g., pop quizzes).

Comparison Table: Classical vs. Operant Conditioning

Feature	Classical Conditioning	Operant Conditioning
Type of Behaviour	Involuntary, reflexive	Voluntary, emitted
Association	Between two stimuli (CS and US)	Between behaviour and consequence
Response depends on	Autonomic nervous system	Skeletal muscles
Learning depends on	Stimulus preceding behaviour	Reinforcement after behaviour

Applications of Conditioning

Conditioned Taste Aversion

• Classical conditioning can lead to avoidance reactions to the taste of food if it is associated with illness.

• Example: Livestock can be protected by conditioning them to avoid certain foods.

Conditioned Tolerance

• Repeated exposure to drugs in a particular setting can lead to increased tolerance due to classical conditioning.

• Example: Environmental cues associated with drug use can elicit compensatory physiological responses.

Conditioned Fear: The Little Albert Experiment

• John B. Watson demonstrated that emotional reactions can be conditioned.

• Little Albert was conditioned to fear a white rat by pairing it with a loud noise.

• This experiment showed that fears can be learned through association, challenging Freudian views of phobia origins.

Systematic Desensitization

• Mary Cover-Jones developed a treatment for phobias by replacing fear with a reward.

• Example: A child with a rabbit phobia was gradually exposed to the rabbit while eating appealing food, eventually overcoming the fear.

Learning Styles

Individual Differences in Learning

Learning styles refer to an individual's preferred or optimal method of acquiring new information. Commonly proposed styles include verbal, spatial, analytical, and holistic learners.

• Research has shown that matching teaching methods to learning styles does not reliably enhance learning outcomes.

• Most individuals are a blend of multiple styles rather than purely one type.

• Effective teaching approaches, such as setting high standards, work well regardless of students' learning styles.

Additional info: The concept of learning styles is widely debated, and current evidence suggests it is more fiction than fact.