Memory and Learning Across the Life Span: Key Concepts and Developmental Changes

Memory and Learning Across the Life Span

Introduction

This study guide summarizes the major concepts from Chapter 7 of "Life-Span Human Development," focusing on memory and learning. It covers definitions, models, types of memory, neural bases, developmental changes, and strategies for improving memory across the lifespan.

Conceptualizing Memory and Learning

Definitions

• Learning: The acquisition of knowledge and skills through experience.

• Memory: The persistence of learning over time, achieved through the storage and retrieval of information and skills.

Learning and memory are closely linked, with memory enabling the retention and use of learned information.

Information Processing Models

Atkinson-Shiffrin Model

The information-processing approach likens the mind to a computer, emphasizing how information is encoded, stored, and retrieved. The Atkinson-Shiffrin model describes three main memory systems:

• Sensory Register: Briefly holds incoming sensory information.

• Short-Term Memory (STM): Temporarily stores and processes information.

• Long-Term Memory (LTM): Stores information for extended periods.

These systems interact to allow perception, attention, and decision-making.

Types of Memory

Explicit vs. Implicit Memory

• Explicit (Declarative) Memory: Involves conscious, effortful recollection of facts and experiences. Includes semantic memory (facts) and episodic memory (events).

• Implicit (Non-declarative) Memory: Involves unconscious, automatic memory for skills, procedures, and conditioned responses.

Autobiographical Memory

• Refers to memory for personal life events.

• Influenced by emotional significance, distinctiveness, and intensity.

• Example: Remembering your first day at college.

Amnesia

• Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new explicit memories after injury.

• Retrograde Amnesia: Inability to retrieve explicit memories from before injury.

Processes of Memory

Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval

• Encoding: Processing and organizing information for long-term storage.

• Storage: Maintaining information in memory over time.

• Retrieval: Accessing stored information when needed.

Retrieval can be tested by recognition (multiple choice), recall (fill in the blank), and cued recall (with hints).

Constructed Memories

• Memory is not a perfect recording; it is reconstructed and altered each time it is recalled.

• New information can modify existing memories.

• Example: Eyewitness testimony may be influenced by leading questions.

Memory Systems

Sensory Memory

• Briefly records sensory information before it is processed further.

• Echoic memory: Auditory; lasts 3-4 seconds.

• Iconic memory: Visual; lasts about 1/20th of a second.

Working Memory

• Temporary "scratch pad" for storing and manipulating information.

• Central executive controls attention and information flow.

• Capacity: Miller's law suggests 5-9 items; recent research indicates about 7 digits, 6 letters, or 5 words.

Effortful Processing Strategies

Chunking

• Grouping information into meaningful units to enhance recall.

• Example: Breaking a phone number into segments.

Mnemonics

• Memory aids that connect new information to existing knowledge, often using imagery or structure.

• Example: "Every Good Boy Does Fine" for musical notes.

Hierarchies/Categories

• Organizing concepts into nested categories improves recall.

• Example: Classifying animals into mammals, reptiles, birds, etc.

Rehearsal & Distributed Practice

• Repeated review and practice over time (spacing effect) enhances long-term retention.

• Testing effect: Actively retrieving information improves memory more than passive review.

Neural Bases of Memory

Brain Structures Involved

• Cerebellum: Stores conditioned responses and procedural memories.

• Basal Ganglia: Controls movement and forms motor skills.

• Hippocampus: Critical for forming new explicit memories.

Case Study: Henry Molaison (H.M.) lost the ability to form new explicit memories after hippocampal removal but retained implicit learning abilities.

Developmental Changes in Memory

Infancy

• Infants can form implicit memories (skills, conditioned responses) early.

• Explicit memory (for events) develops later; most people experience infantile amnesia (few memories before age 3).

• Infant memory is cue-dependent and context-sensitive.

Childhood

• Children become faster information processors and use more effective memory strategies.

• Knowledge about memory (metacognition) improves, allowing better strategy selection.

• Memory scripts (general event representations) become more detailed and aid recall.

Adolescence

• Advanced memory strategies and metacognition emerge.

• Working memory and knowledge base expand.

• Girls and those from higher socioeconomic backgrounds may use more metacognitive strategies.

Adulthood

• Performance depends on learner characteristics (goals, motivation, health), task demands, and environmental context.

• Older adults may compensate for declines by using expertise and problem-solving strategies.

Table: Types of Memory and Their Characteristics

Type of Memory	Conscious Awareness	Examples	Developmental Onset
Explicit (Declarative)	Conscious	Recalling facts, events	Develops later in childhood
Implicit (Non-declarative)	Unconscious	Skills, conditioned responses	Present in infancy
Autobiographical	Conscious	Personal life events	Emerges in early childhood
Procedural	Unconscious	Riding a bike, typing	Early childhood

Key Equations and Concepts

• Miller's Law (Working Memory Capacity):

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• Spacing Effect: Distributed practice leads to better long-term retention than massed practice.

• Testing Effect: Retrieval practice enhances memory.

Summary

Memory and learning are dynamic processes that change across the lifespan. Understanding the types, processes, neural bases, and developmental changes in memory can help students apply effective strategies for studying and lifelong learning.