Memory and Learning: Behaviorism and Learning Theories in Life-Span Human Development

Chapter 7: Memory and Learning

Introduction to Learning Theories in Psychology

Learning theories are foundational in understanding how individuals acquire new behaviors, skills, and knowledge throughout the lifespan. These theories focus on the processes by which experience leads to changes in behavior and are contrasted with other psychological perspectives such as cognitive and psychoanalytic theories.

• Learning Theory Perspective: Emphasizes observable actions and the influence of the environment on behavior.

• Cognitive Theory: Focuses on ideas, beliefs, and assumptions.

• Psychoanalytic Theory: Centers on emotions such as love, hate, and fear.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Learning Theories

Learning theories offer precise, testable frameworks for understanding behavior, but they also have limitations.

• Strengths:

  • Principles are precise and testable.

  • Applicable to behavior at any age.

  • Important real-world applications (e.g., education, therapy).

• Weaknesses:

  • Rarely demonstrate that learning alone accounts for developmental changes.

  • Underemphasize biological and internal influences.

The Three Major Types of Learning

Overview Table: Types of Learning

Type of Learning	What It Involves	What Is Learned
Classical conditioning	A stimulus comes to elicit a response through its association with an unconditioned stimulus.	Emotional reactions (e.g., phobias, associations, conditioned responses).
Operant conditioning	Learning involves reacting to the consequences of one's behavior (reinforcement and punishment).	Skills; good and bad habits; voluntary behaviors.
Observational learning	Learning involves watching a model and, through vicarious reinforcement or punishment, the consequences of the model's behavior.	Skills, cognitions, and behaviors, including those that have not been directly reinforced for the learner.

Classical Conditioning

Definition and Key Concepts

Classical conditioning is a type of associative learning first described by Ivan Pavlov. It occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response.

• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally triggers a response (e.g., food).

• Unconditioned Response (UCR): The natural reaction to the UCS (e.g., salivation).

• Neutral Stimulus (NS): A stimulus that does not initially trigger the UCR.

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): The previously neutral stimulus that, after association with the UCS, triggers a response.

• Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the CS.

Example: Pavlov's dogs learned to salivate (CR) at the sound of a bell (CS) after the bell was repeatedly paired with food (UCS).

Little Albert Experiment

John Watson and Rosalie Rayner demonstrated classical conditioning of fear in the "Little Albert" experiment. A young child was conditioned to fear a white rat by pairing its appearance with a loud, frightening noise.

• NS: White rat

• UCS: Loud noise (steel bar hit with hammer)

• UCR: Fear response

• CS: White rat (after pairing)

• CR: Fear of the rat

Generalization: Little Albert's fear extended to other soft, furry objects.

Operant Conditioning

Definition and Key Concepts

Operant conditioning, described by B.F. Skinner, is learning in which voluntary behaviors are strengthened or weakened by their consequences.

• Reinforcement: Increases the likelihood of a behavior.

• Punishment: Decreases the likelihood of a behavior.

• Positive Reinforcement: Adding something desirable (e.g., praise, reward).

• Negative Reinforcement: Removing something unpleasant (e.g., ending discomfort).

• Positive Punishment: Adding something unpleasant (e.g., spanking).

• Negative Punishment: Removing something pleasant (e.g., taking away privileges).

Example: A child receives candy for saying "please" (positive reinforcement), or loses TV time for misbehavior (negative punishment).

Shaping Behavior

Shaping involves reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior until the target behavior is achieved.

• Used when the desired behavior is unlikely to occur spontaneously.

• Each step closer to the target behavior is reinforced.

Mutual Reinforcement Example

Operant conditioning can create cycles of mutual reinforcement, such as in parent-child interactions during tantrums.

• Child's tantrum is reinforced if parents give in.

• Parents' giving-in behavior is reinforced if the tantrum stops.

Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning

Feature	Classical Conditioning	Operant Conditioning
Association	Events/stimuli with each other	Behavior with consequences
Response Type	Involuntary, automatic	Voluntary actions
Acquisition	NS linked to UCS by repeated pairing	Behavior associated with reinforcement or punishment
Extinction	CR decreases when CS is presented alone	Behavior decreases when reinforcement stops
Generalization	CR triggered by stimuli similar to CS	Behavior occurs in situations similar to those reinforced
Discrimination	Distinguishing CS from other stimuli	Distinguishing which behaviors are reinforced

Observational Learning (Social-Cognitive Theory)

Definition and Key Concepts

Observational learning, described by Albert Bandura, occurs when individuals learn by watching others and imitating their actions. This process can involve vicarious reinforcement or punishment.

• Model: The person being observed.

• Vicarious Reinforcement: Observing a model being rewarded increases the likelihood of imitation.

• Reciprocal Determinism: The interaction between personal, behavioral, and environmental factors.

• Self-Efficacy: Belief in one's ability to succeed in specific situations.

Example: Children who observe adults acting aggressively toward a toy (Bobo doll experiment) are more likely to imitate aggressive behaviors.

Social Effects of Observational Learning

• Antisocial Behavior: Observing harmful actions can increase the likelihood of similar behaviors in observers.

• Prosocial Behavior: Observing helpful, moral actions can promote positive behaviors, especially when the benefits are clear.

Application: Parents and educators can model prosocial behaviors to encourage their development in children.

Theory Maps: Key Figures and Principles

John Watson (Classical Conditioning)

• Perspective: Behavioral

• Key Principles: Classical conditioning, UCS, UCR, CS, CR

• Focus: Observable behavior and environmental stimuli

B.F. Skinner (Operant Conditioning)

• Perspective: Behavioral

• Key Principles: Operant conditioning, reinforcement, punishment, behavior modification

• Focus: Observable behavior and consequences

Albert Bandura (Social-Cognitive Learning)

• Perspective: Behavioral

• Key Principles: Observational learning, model, vicarious reinforcement, reciprocal determinism, self-efficacy

• Focus: Learning through imitation and observation

Key Terms and Formulas

• Classical Conditioning Formula:

$\text{NS} + \text{UCS} \rightarrow \text{UCR}$ $\text{CS} \rightarrow \text{CR}$

• Operant Conditioning Formula:

$\text{Behavior} \xrightarrow{\text{Consequence}} \text{Change in Likelihood of Behavior}$

• Observational Learning: Learning occurs through observation and imitation, influenced by the observed consequences.

Additional info: These notes expand on the provided slides and images by integrating definitions, examples, and academic context for each major theory and concept. The tables have been reconstructed for clarity and completeness.