Motivation & Emotion: Study Notes for Psychology

Motivation & Emotion

Introduction

This study guide covers the psychological and physiological processes underlying motivation and emotion, including hunger and eating, sexual influences, social and achievement motivation, and theories of emotion. These topics are central to understanding human behavior and mental processes in psychology.

Motivation

Definition and Key Concepts

• Motivation: The physiological and psychological processes that initiate and direct behaviors toward specific goals.

• Homeostasis: The body's ability to maintain stable internal conditions (e.g., temperature, energy balance).

• Drives: Biological urges (e.g., hunger, thirst) and psychological motives that push behavior; often influenced by incentives (external rewards).

• Allostasis: Motivation shaped by current needs and anticipation of future demands, especially under stress.

Hunger & Eating

Physiological Mechanisms

• Hypothalamus: Brain region regulating hunger.

  • Lateral hypothalamus: Triggers eating ('on' switch).

  • Ventromedial hypothalamus: Suppresses eating ('off' switch).

  • Paraventricular nucleus: Modulates signals from lateral and ventromedial areas.

• Preference for Carbohydrates and Fats: Driven by evolutionary and neurochemical factors.

• Satiation and Cholecystokinin (CCK): CCK is a hormone that signals fullness and reduces food intake.

• Unit Bias: Tendency to perceive a single unit or portion as the appropriate amount to consume, influenced by social factors (facilitation, impression management, modeling).

Eating Disorders

• Anorexia Nervosa:

  • Pursuit of thinness through starvation; can be fatal.

  • Criteria: Weight < 85% of normal for age/height, fear of gaining weight, distorted body image, amenorrhea.

• Bulimia Nervosa:

  • Binge eating followed by purging (e.g., vomiting, laxatives) at least twice a week for 3 months.

  • Criteria: Eating large amounts in a short time, lack of control over eating (impulsivity).

  • Most (~70%) recover with treatment.

Sexual Motivation & Influences

Sexual Influences

• Libido: Motivation for sexual activity and pleasure.

• Evolutionary Influences:

  • Intrasexual selection: Competition within a sex for mates.

  • Intersexual selection: Preferences for desirable traits in partners.

  • Socioeconomic status (SES) and willingness to enter relationships.

• Psychological Influences: Attitudes, beliefs, and experiences shape sexual motivation.

• Physiological Influences:

  • Sexual response cycle: Sequence of physiological changes during sexual activity.

  • Neural pathway: Hypothalamus → pituitary gland → oxytocin release.

Sexual Orientation & Transgender Individuals

• Sexual Orientation: Consistent preference for sexual relations with members of the opposite sex, same sex, or either sex.

• Is same-sex behavior 'unnatural'? Research explores biological (e.g., hypothalamic differences, prenatal testosterone) and social factors.

• Transgender: Individuals whose gender identity does not match their biological sex.

• Genetics: Evidence suggests genetic contributions to sexual orientation and gender identity.

Social & Achievement Motivation

The Need to Belong

• Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: A pyramid model ranking human needs from physiological to self-actualization.

  Level	Need
  1	Physiological
  2	Safety
  3	Love/Belonging
  4	Esteem
  5	Self-actualization

• Affiliation Motivation: The need to maintain relationships involving warmth, affection, appreciation, and mutual concern for well-being.

• Effects on mental and physical health: Social connections reduce loneliness and risk of heart attacks.

Achievement Motivation

• Drive to Achieve: Striving for high performance and significant goals.

  • Approach goals: Pursuit of enjoyable/pleasant incentives.

  • Avoidance goals: Efforts to avoid unpleasant outcomes.

• Self-Determination Theory:

  • Universal needs: Relatedness, autonomy, competence.

  • Self-efficacy: Confidence in one's ability to plan and execute actions to solve problems.

• Sources of Motivation:

  • Extrinsic: Driven by external rewards (performance).

  • Intrinsic: Driven by internal satisfaction (mastery).

  • Praise and cheating: Overemphasis on praise for intelligence can promote cheating (Zhao et al., 2017).

Emotion

Physiological Response

• Emotion: A behavior with (a) subjective experience, (b) neural/physical arousal, and (c) observable expression.

• Amygdala & Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): Key brain structures in emotional processing and physiological arousal.

• Emotional Regulation: Involves frontal cortex (FC) for controlling emotional responses.

Theories of Emotion

• James-Lange Theory: Physiological arousal precedes emotional experience. $\text{Emotion} = f(\text{Physiological Response})$

• Cannon-Bard Theory: Emotional experience and physiological response occur simultaneously and independently. $\text{Emotion} \parallel \text{Physiological Response}$

• Facial Feedback Hypothesis: Facial expressions can influence emotional experiences.

• Two-Factor Theory (Schachter-Singer): Emotion arises from physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation. $\text{Emotion} = \text{Arousal} + \text{Cognitive Label}$

  Group	Condition
  Informed	Correct info about arousal
  Ignorant	No info about arousal
  Misinformed	Incorrect info about arousal
  Control	No arousal

References

• Zhao, L., Heyman, G., Chen, L., & Lee, K. (2017). Praising young children for being smart promotes cheating. Psychological Science, 28(12), 1868-1870.

Additional info: Some diagrams and images referenced in the slides (e.g., hypothalamus anatomy, sexual response cycle, Maslow's pyramid) are described in text for clarity.