Personality: Theories, Traits, and Assessment in Psychology

Personality: Theories, Traits, and Assessment

Early Trait Research

Personality traits are specific psychological characteristics that form part of an individual's personality. Trait theories allow psychologists to predict behavior based on these traits.

• Definition: A personality trait is a consistent pattern of thought, feeling, or behavior.

• Gordon Allport: Identified 4,500 words in English to describe personality traits, organizing them into three categories:

  • Cardinal traits: Dominant traits that shape most of a person's activities (e.g., nonconformity).

  • Central traits: Major characteristics (e.g., creativity, loyalty).

  • Secondary traits: Traits that appear in specific situations (e.g., preferences, attitudes).

• Example: An extraverted person may behave sociably at a party.

Allport Trait Typing Example

• Cardinal: Nonconformist, anti-establishment.

• Central: Creative, imaginative, passionate, charismatic, loyal, courageous.

• Secondary: High fantasy imagination, low conformity in self-presentation.

Big Five (Five Factor Model)

The Big Five model is the most widely accepted trait theory, describing personality using five broad dimensions.

Factor	High Score Characteristics	Low Score Characteristics
Openness	Imaginative, curious, open to new experiences	Conventional, prefers routine
Conscientiousness	Organized, dependable, disciplined	Careless, impulsive
Extraversion	Outgoing, energetic, sociable	Reserved, solitary
Agreeableness	Trusting, kind, cooperative	Suspicious, antagonistic
Neuroticism	Anxious, moody, sensitive	Emotionally stable, calm

NEO-PI-R Sample Items

• Measures Big Five traits using self-report statements (e.g., "I find it easy to smile and be outgoing with strangers").

• Assesses preferences, behaviors, and emotional tendencies.

Big Five Facts

• Universality: Traits appear across cultures, though emphasis varies.

• Predicts Outcomes: Conscientiousness predicts academic/job success; extraversion predicts leadership.

• Neuroticism: Linked to anxiety and stress.

• Changes Over Time: Traits like agreeableness and conscientiousness grow with age.

• Animal Studies: Big Five traits observed in dogs, chimps, and even octopuses.

• Cultural Variation: Scandinavians score high on agreeableness/openness; Americans on extraversion.

HEXACO Model

Expands the Big Five by adding a sixth factor: Honesty-Humility.

• High Honesty-Humility: Sincere, honest, modest, altruistic.

• Low Honesty-Humility: Deceitful, greedy, pompous, manipulative, selfish.

Stability of Personality Traits

• Relatively stable over time.

• Maturity Principle: People become more dominant, agreeable, conscientious, and emotionally stable as they age.

• Infant temperament predicts adult personality (e.g., neuroticism, extraversion).

Behaviourist Perspectives

Personality is shaped by learned behavior patterns through reinforcement (Skinner).

• Similarities in behavior result from similar reinforcement histories.

• Humans can change personality by learning new behaviors.

Social Cognitive Approaches

Emphasizes the interaction between individual and environment (Bandura).

• Observational learning: People learn behaviors by watching others.

• Reciprocal determinism: Personality is shaped by the interaction of behavior, cognition, and environment.

• Example: Shy individuals may avoid social settings due to personal and environmental factors.

Self-Efficacy

Belief in one's ability to succeed in specific situations influences personality traits and behavior.

• High self-efficacy leads to confidence and persistence.

• Developed through attention to prior successes/failures and encouragement from others.

Individualist vs. Collectivist Cultures

Individualist	Collectivist
Independence, competition, personal achievement	Social harmony, group needs, respectfulness
Western nations (U.S., England, Australia)	Asia, Africa, South America
Self-confidence, openness, assertiveness	Humility, empathy, cooperativeness

Regional Differences (USA)

• Personality clusters vary by region (e.g., friendly/conventional, reserved/introverted).

Biological Approach

Explores genetic and hereditary components of personality.

• Minnesota twin study: Identical twins raised apart show similar personality traits, indicating genetic influence.

Psychoanalytic Theory

Freud's theory emphasizes unconscious forces as determinants of personality.

• Unconscious: Contains memories, urges, and instincts outside awareness.

• Personality consists of three components:

  • Id: Pleasure principle, unconscious urges.

  • Ego: Reality principle, executive function.

  • Superego: Moral guardian, ideal self.

• Example: Conflict between studying and watching Netflix illustrates id, ego, and superego.

Developing Personality: Psychosexual Stages

Freud proposed five stages of personality development, each focused on erogenous zones and conflict resolution.

• Oral (0-1 yr): Pleasure in sucking/eating; fixation leads to oral behaviors (e.g., smoking).

• Anal (2-4 yrs): Toilet training; fixation leads to messiness or obsessiveness.

• Phallic (4-6 yrs): Manipulating genitals; Oedipus/Elektra complex.

• Latency (6-12 yrs): Sexual desires dormant; focus on skills/hobbies.

• Genital (12+ yrs): Mature sexual intimacy; success leads to balanced relationships.

Defense Mechanisms

Strategies used by the ego to manage conflict between id, superego, and reality.

• Repression: Blocking thoughts from consciousness.

• Denial: Refusing to acknowledge feelings.

• Regression: Returning to earlier developmental stage.

• Projection: Attributing impulses to others.

• Displacement: Redirecting impulses to acceptable targets.

Neo-Freudians

• Carl Jung: Collective unconscious, archetypes, introduced introversion vs. extraversion.

• Karen Horney: Challenged Freudian gender assumptions, critiqued "penis envy," proposed "womb envy."

Birth Order and Personality

• Firstborns score slightly higher on intelligence tests.

• No lasting effects of birth order on major personality traits.

Sibship Size & Personality

• More siblings: Higher honesty-humility and agreeableness.

• Only children: Lowest honesty-humility and agreeableness, slightly higher openness.

Humanistic Approaches

Focus on unique, positive qualities and free will.

• Humans are basically good; exceptional people share creativity, realistic thinking, and concern for others.

• Maslow: Self-actualization, peak experiences.

Carl Rogers

• Need for self-actualization and positive regard.

• Self-concept central to personality (congruent vs. incongruent).

• Discrepancy between "ideal self" and "true self" leads to anxiety; overcome via unconditional positive regard.

Assessment: Self-Report Measures

• MMPI-2: 567 items, true/false/cannot say; identifies psychological difficulties and predicts behavior.

• Used in clinical settings; interpretive assessment.

Sample MMPI Items

• I have never been in trouble because of my sex behavior.

• My stomach frequently bothers me.

• I like to hurt animals.

• Sometimes I smell strange things that others do not.

Projective Tests

• Ambiguous stimuli (e.g., Rorschach, TAT) used to elicit responses revealing unconscious aspects of personality.

• Require skillful interpretation; subjectivity is a concern.

The Dark Triad

Trait	Characteristics
Narcissism	Grandiosity, entitlement, excessive self-love, desire for admiration
Machiavellianism	Cynical, manipulative, lack of empathy, strategic interpersonal behavior
Psychopathy	High impulsivity, thrill-seeking, low empathy, callousness

Why So Dark?

• Aggression, violence, low empathy, hedonism, heartless love, counterproductive workplace behaviors.

Psychopathy

• High impulsivity, thrill-seeking, low empathy, callousness.

• May have genetic/neurological roots.

Narcissism

• Grandiosity, entitlement, excessive self-love, desire for admiration.

• Fragile self-esteem; may be an evolutionary strategy.

Machiavellianism

• Cynical, manipulative, few emotional attachments, lack of empathy.

• Thrive in strategic environments, struggle in collaborative ones.

Self-Report Items (Dark Triad)

• It's not wise to tell your secrets (SD3).

• The best way to handle people is to tell them what you want to hear (SD3).

• I have a natural talent for influencing people (NPI).

• I enjoy seeing people get upset (LSRP).

• Payback needs to be quick and nasty (LSRP).

Dark Tetrad: Sadism

• Pleasure from inflicting pain/humiliation.

• Cruel, manipulative, low agreeableness/conscientiousness.

• Disinhibited, low emotional regulation.

Dating the Dark Triad

Trait	Dating Strategies
Psychopathy	Short-term mating, charm, boldness, lack of remorse, exploitative relationships
Narcissism	Attracting attention, valuing physical attractiveness, game-playing behaviors
Machiavellianism	Charm to achieve goals, manipulation to maintain control, prioritize short-term goals

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