term 2 midterm 1 study guide

General Exam Information

• Chapters Covered: 13 & 14 (Social Psychology and Personality)

• Exam Format: 23-26 multiple choice questions, 2-3 short answer questions

• Exam Duration: 45 minutes

• Materials: Closed book; no notes, textbooks, electronics, or aids allowed

• Student Card: Required for exam check-in

Chapter 13: Social Psychology

Attitudes and Attitude Change

Attitudes are evaluations of people, objects, or ideas that can influence behavior. Social psychology examines how attitudes are formed, changed, and how they predict behavior.

• Attitude-Behavior Consistency: Attitudes do not always predict behavior due to situational factors and social influences.

• Cognitive Dissonance Theory: When attitudes and behaviors conflict, individuals experience discomfort (dissonance) and are motivated to reduce it, often by changing attitudes or behaviors.

• Persuasion Techniques: Methods such as the foot-in-the-door and door-in-the-face techniques are used to change attitudes.

• Example: A person who believes smoking is unhealthy but continues to smoke may change their attitude to reduce dissonance.

Conformity, Deindividuation & Obedience

Social psychology explores how individuals are influenced by group norms and authority figures.

• Conformity: Adjusting behavior or thinking to align with group standards (e.g., Asch's line experiment).

• Deindividuation: Loss of self-awareness in groups, leading to atypical behavior (e.g., crowd behavior).

• Obedience: Following orders from authority figures, sometimes against personal conscience (e.g., Milgram's shock experiment).

• Example: People may conform to group opinions even when they know the group is wrong.

Prejudice, Stereotypes, Discrimination & Racism

Prejudice involves negative attitudes toward groups, stereotypes are generalized beliefs, and discrimination is negative behavior toward group members.

• Origins: Social learning, categorization, and in-group/out-group dynamics contribute to prejudice and stereotypes.

• Reducing Prejudice: Intergroup contact and cooperation can reduce prejudice (e.g., Robbers Cave study).

• Example: Stereotyping all members of a group as having the same traits.

Prosocial Behavior & Aggression

Prosocial behavior benefits others, while aggression intends to harm.

• Bystander Effect: Individuals are less likely to help when others are present (diffusion of responsibility).

• Factors Influencing Aggression: Biological, psychological, and social factors all play a role.

• Example: People may not intervene in emergencies if they believe someone else will help.

Chapter 14: Personality

Behavioral & Genetic Influences

Personality is shaped by both genetic and environmental factors.

• Genetic Studies: Twin and adoption studies show that genetics contribute to personality traits.

• Shared vs. Nonshared Environment: Nonshared environmental factors (unique experiences) have a significant impact.

• Example: Identical twins raised apart may still show similar personality traits.

Freud & Psychoanalytic Theory

Freud's theory emphasizes unconscious motives and early childhood experiences.

• Structure of Personality: Id (instincts), Ego (reality), Superego (morality).

• Defense Mechanisms: Unconscious strategies to reduce anxiety (e.g., repression, denial).

• Psychosexual Stages: Developmental stages with specific conflicts (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital).

• Criticisms: Lack of scientific support and overemphasis on sexuality.

• Example: A person using denial to avoid acknowledging a problem.

Behavioral and Social Learning Theories

These theories focus on observable behavior and the influence of the environment.

• Classical & Operant Conditioning: Personality is shaped by learned associations and consequences.

• Observational Learning: Learning by watching others (Bandura's social learning theory).

• Example: Children imitating aggressive behavior seen in adults.

Humanistic Perspectives

Humanistic theories emphasize personal growth and self-actualization.

• Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: Self-actualization is the highest human need.

• Rogers' Self Theory: The self-concept and unconditional positive regard are central to personality development.

• Example: A person striving to fulfill their potential.

Trait Theories and Personality Assessment

Trait theories describe personality in terms of stable characteristics.

• Big Five Model: Five major traits: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism.

• Assessment: Personality tests (e.g., self-report inventories) measure these traits.

• Example: Someone high in extraversion is sociable and outgoing.

Measuring Personality

Personality can be measured using objective and projective tests.

• Objective Tests: Standardized questionnaires (e.g., MMPI).

• Projective Tests: Ambiguous stimuli (e.g., Rorschach Inkblot Test) to uncover unconscious motives.

• Reliability & Validity: Important criteria for evaluating personality tests.

• Example: The MMPI is widely used to assess psychological disorders.

Table: Comparison of Major Personality Theories

Theory	Key Features	Major Figures
Psychoanalytic	Unconscious motives, childhood experiences	Freud
Behavioral	Learning, environment, observable behavior	Skinner, Watson
Humanistic	Personal growth, self-actualization	Maslow, Rogers
Trait	Stable characteristics, Big Five traits	Cattell, Costa & McCrae

Additional info: This guide is based on a study guide for a midterm exam in an introductory psychology course, focusing on social psychology and personality. It covers key theories, concepts, and examples relevant to exam preparation.