Psychology Exam 2 Study Guide: Human Development, Sensation & Perception, and Consciousness

Chapter 9: Human Development

Developmental Norms and Theories

This section covers the foundational concepts in human development, including developmental norms, major stage theories, and attachment patterns.

• Developmental Norm: A standard or average age at which children acquire particular skills or behaviors. These norms help identify typical versus atypical development.

• Cognitive Development Theory (Jean Piaget): Piaget proposed that children progress through four stages of cognitive development, each characterized by different ways of thinking and understanding the world.

  • Sensorimotor Stage (Birth-2 years): Knowledge develops through sensory and motor activities. Object permanence emerges.

  • Preoperational Stage (2-7 years): Symbolic thinking grows, but thinking is egocentric and lacks logical operations.

  • Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years): Logical thinking about concrete events develops; understanding of conservation and perspective-taking improves.

  • Formal Operational Stage (12+ years): Abstract and hypothetical reasoning emerges.

• Socioemotional Development Theory (Erik Erikson): Erikson described eight stages of psychosocial development, each with a central conflict to resolve (e.g., trust vs. mistrust in infancy, identity vs. role confusion in adolescence).

• Attachment Theories: Patterns of emotional bonds between infants and caregivers. Secure attachment is associated with healthy social and emotional development, while insecure attachment (avoidant, ambivalent, disorganized) may lead to difficulties later in life.

Example: A child who successfully resolves Erikson's stage of autonomy vs. shame and doubt (toddlerhood) will develop a sense of independence.

Chapter 4: Sensation and Perception

Basic Structures and Processes

This chapter explores how sensory information is received and interpreted by the brain, including the anatomy of sensory organs and major perceptual theories.

• Structures of the Eye: Includes the cornea, pupil, lens, retina, and optic nerve. Each part plays a role in focusing and transmitting visual information.

• Properties of Light: Light is characterized by wavelength (color), amplitude (brightness), and purity (saturation).

• Theories of Color Perception:

  • Trichromatic Theory: The retina contains three types of cones sensitive to red, green, and blue wavelengths.

  • Opponent-Process Theory: Color perception is controlled by opposing neural processes (red-green, blue-yellow, black-white).

• Top-Down vs. Bottom-Up Processing:

  • Bottom-Up Processing: Perception starts with sensory input and builds up to complex perception.

  • Top-Down Processing: Perception is influenced by expectations, prior knowledge, and context.

• Gestalt Psychology: Emphasizes that the whole of perception is more than the sum of its parts. Key principles include proximity, similarity, closure, and continuity.

• Structures of the Ear: Includes the outer ear (pinna, auditory canal), middle ear (ossicles), and inner ear (cochlea, auditory nerve).

• Theories of Auditory Perception:

  • Place Theory: Different frequencies stimulate different places on the cochlea.

  • Frequency Theory: The rate of nerve impulses matches the frequency of a tone.

• Olfaction (Sense of Smell): Olfactory receptors in the nasal cavity detect airborne chemicals. Smell is unique in its direct connection to the limbic system, influencing emotion and memory.

Example: Recognizing a friend's face involves both bottom-up (features) and top-down (memory) processing.

Chapter 5: Variations in Consciousness

Circadian Rhythms, Sleep, and Hypnosis

This section examines the biological and psychological processes underlying consciousness, including sleep cycles and altered states.

• Circadian Rhythm: The body's internal clock, regulating sleep-wake cycles and other physiological processes on a roughly 24-hour schedule.

• Sleep Stages: Sleep is divided into NREM (stages 1-3) and REM (rapid eye movement) stages. Each stage is characterized by distinct brain wave patterns and physiological changes.

• Theories of Dreaming:

  • Freud's Wish-Fulfillment Theory: Dreams represent unconscious desires.

  • Activation-Synthesis Theory: Dreams are the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural activity.

  • Information-Processing Theory: Dreams help process and consolidate memories.

• Theories of Hypnosis:

  • Dissociation Theory: Hypnosis causes a split in consciousness, allowing some thoughts and behaviors to occur independently.

  • Social-Cognitive Theory: Hypnotic experiences result from expectations and social influences.

Example: Jet lag occurs when the circadian rhythm is out of sync with the environment, leading to sleep disturbances.