Psychology Exam #2 Study Guide: Key Theories, Terms, and Concepts

Theories and Terms in Psychology

Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is a fundamental learning process in psychology, describing how organisms learn to associate stimuli and responses.

• Unconditioned Stimulus (US): A stimulus that naturally triggers a response without prior learning.

• Unconditioned Response (UR): The natural reaction to the unconditioned stimulus.

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with the US, triggers a conditioned response.

• Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the conditioned stimulus.

• Key Processes:

  • Acquisition: The initial stage of learning when a response is first established.

  • Extinction: The diminishing of a conditioned response when the CS is repeatedly presented without the US.

  • Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of a weakened CR after a pause.

  • Generalization: The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS.

  • Discrimination: The ability to distinguish between the CS and other stimuli.

• Example: Pavlov’s dogs salivating to the sound of a bell after repeated pairings with food.

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning explains how behaviors are influenced by consequences such as rewards and punishments.

• Reinforcement vs. Punishment:

  • Positive Reinforcement: Adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior.

  • Negative Reinforcement: Removing an aversive stimulus to increase a behavior.

  • Punishment: Introducing an aversive stimulus or removing a desirable one to decrease a behavior.

• Types of Reinforcers:

  • Primary Reinforcers: Naturally reinforcing (e.g., food, water).

  • Secondary Reinforcers: Learned reinforcers (e.g., money, grades).

• Schedules of Reinforcement: Patterns that determine how often a behavior is reinforced (e.g., fixed-ratio, variable-ratio).

• Example: A child receives praise (positive reinforcement) for completing homework.

Observational Learning

Observational learning occurs when individuals acquire new behaviors by watching others.

• Four Stages of the Process:

  1. Attention

  2. Retention

  3. Reproduction

  4. Motivation

• Modeling: Behaviors are more likely to be imitated if the model is admired or similar to the observer.

• Mirror Neurons: Neurons that fire both when performing an action and when observing the same action performed by another.

• Example: Children learning social behaviors by watching parents.

Memory Processes

Memory involves encoding, storing, and retrieving information, with several factors influencing its effectiveness.

• Encoding: Transforming information into a form that can be stored in memory.

• Storage: Maintaining encoded information over time.

• Retrieval: Accessing stored information when needed.

• Brain Structures: The hippocampus and other regions are involved in memory formation and retrieval.

• Forgetting: Often caused by interference (proactive or retroactive).

• Example: Studying for an exam and recalling information during the test.

Thinking & Intelligence

Thinking encompasses problem-solving, reasoning, and decision-making, while intelligence refers to the ability to learn and adapt.

• Thinking Terms: Problem solving, cognition, decision bias.

• Theories of Intelligence:

  • Triarchic Theory: Proposes three types of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical.

  • Multiple Intelligences: Suggests several distinct types of intelligence (e.g., linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial).

  • Emotional Intelligence: The ability to perceive, understand, and manage emotions.

• Example: Solving a complex math problem using logical reasoning.

Developmental Psychology

Developmental psychology studies the changes in behavior and mental processes across the lifespan.

• Stages of Development: Prenatal, childhood, adolescence, adulthood.

• Theories:

  • Socioemotional Development: Focuses on temperament and attachment.

  • Cognitive Development: Piaget’s stages (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational).

  • Moral Development: Kohlberg’s theory (preconventional, conventional, postconventional).

  • Physical Development: Motor skills, puberty.

• Example: Attachment styles in infants (secure, insecure).

Theories of Motivation & Emotion

Motivation and emotion drive behavior and influence psychological well-being.

• Motivation Theories:

  • Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation: Internal vs. external sources of motivation.

  • Drive Theory: Behavior is motivated by biological drives.

  • Hierarchy of Needs: Maslow’s pyramid of human needs, from physiological to self-actualization.

• Associated Terms:

  • Overjustification Effect: External rewards can reduce intrinsic motivation.

  • Yerkes-Dodson Law: Performance increases with arousal up to a point, then decreases.

• Components of Emotion: Physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, conscious experience.

• Emotion Theories: James-Lange, Cannon-Bard, Schachter-Singer.

• Example: Feeling anxious before a public speech (Yerkes-Dodson Law).

Exam Format Overview

• 35 multiple choice questions (2 pts. each)

• Identification of concepts in example sections

• Coverage includes classical/operant conditioning, memory, development, motivation/emotion, and thinking/intelligence

Additional info: Some terms and theories have been expanded for clarity and completeness. The original notes were brief; academic context and examples have been added for self-contained study.