Psychology Study Guide: Learning, Memory, Intelligence, Development, and Emotion

Theories and Terms in Psychology

Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is a fundamental learning process first described by Ivan Pavlov, where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus, eliciting a conditioned response.

• Key Terms:

  • Unconditioned Stimulus (US): A stimulus that naturally elicits a response (e.g., food causing salivation).

  • Unconditioned Response (UR): The natural response to the unconditioned stimulus (e.g., salivation to food).

  • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with the US, elicits a response.

  • Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the conditioned stimulus.

• Processes:

  • Acquisition: The initial stage of learning when a response is first established.

  • Extinction: The diminishing of a conditioned response when the CS is repeatedly presented without the US.

  • Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of a weakened CR after a pause.

  • Generalization: The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS.

  • Discrimination: The learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli.

• Example: Pavlov's dogs salivating to the sound of a bell after repeated pairings with food.

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning, described by B.F. Skinner, involves learning through consequences, where behaviors are strengthened or weakened by reinforcement or punishment.

• Reinforcement vs. Punishment:

  • Reinforcement: Increases the likelihood of a behavior (positive = adding a desirable stimulus; negative = removing an aversive stimulus).

  • Punishment: Decreases the likelihood of a behavior (positive = adding an aversive stimulus; negative = removing a desirable stimulus).

• Types of Reinforcers:

  • Primary Reinforcers: Naturally reinforcing (e.g., food, water).

  • Secondary Reinforcers: Learned value (e.g., money, praise).

• Schedules of Reinforcement: Patterns that determine how often a behavior is reinforced (e.g., fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, variable-interval).

• Example: Giving a child candy for completing homework (positive reinforcement).

Observational Learning

Observational learning, or modeling, occurs when individuals learn by watching others. Albert Bandura's work highlighted the importance of this process in social learning.

• Key Aspects:

  • 4 Steps of the Process: Attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.

  • Model Characteristics: Models that are admired or have authority are more likely to be imitated.

  • Mirror Neurons: Neurons that fire both when performing an action and when observing the same action performed by another.

• Example: Children imitating aggressive behavior after watching adults act aggressively (Bandura's Bobo doll experiment).

Memory Processes

Memory involves encoding, storing, and retrieving information. Understanding these processes helps explain how we remember and why we forget.

• Encoding: The process of transforming information into a form that can be stored in memory.

• Storage: Maintaining information over time.

• Retrieval: Accessing stored information when needed.

• Forgetting: Often due to interference (proactive or retroactive) or retrieval failure.

• Brain Structures: The hippocampus, amygdala, and prefrontal cortex are involved in different aspects of memory.

• Example: Remembering a friend's phone number by repeating it (rehearsal) and later recalling it (retrieval).

Thinking and Intelligence

Thinking involves mental processes such as problem-solving, reasoning, and decision-making. Intelligence refers to the ability to learn, understand, and apply knowledge.

• Key Terms:

  • Problem Solving: Finding solutions to obstacles.

  • Cognition: Mental activities related to thinking, knowing, and remembering.

  • Decision Bias: Systematic errors in judgment.

• Theories of Intelligence:

  • Triarchic Theory (Sternberg): Analytical, creative, and practical intelligence.

  • Multiple Intelligences (Gardner): Proposes several distinct types of intelligence (e.g., linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial).

  • Emotional Intelligence: The ability to perceive, understand, and manage emotions.

• Example: Using logical reasoning to solve a math problem (analytical intelligence).

Developmental Psychology

Developmental psychology studies how people grow and change throughout the lifespan, focusing on physical, cognitive, and social development.

• Stages of Development: Prenatal, infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age.

• Theories:

  • Socioemotional Development: Examines temperament and attachment (e.g., secure vs. insecure attachment).

  • Cognitive Development (Piaget): Four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational.

  • Moral Development (Kohlberg): Three levels: preconventional, conventional, postconventional.

  • Physical Development: Includes motor skills and puberty.

• Example: A child learning object permanence during Piaget's sensorimotor stage.

Theories of Motivation and Emotion

Motivation and emotion are central to understanding human behavior. Various theories explain why we act and how we experience feelings.

• Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation: Intrinsic motivation comes from within (e.g., personal satisfaction), while extrinsic motivation is driven by external rewards.

• Drive Theory: Behavior is motivated by the desire to reduce internal tension caused by unmet needs.

• Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow): Proposes that basic needs must be met before higher-level needs (e.g., self-actualization).

• Associated Terms:

  • Overjustification Effect: When external rewards reduce intrinsic motivation.

  • Yerkes-Dodson Law: Performance increases with arousal up to a point, then decreases.

• Components of Emotion: Physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious experience.

• Theories of Emotion: James-Lange, Cannon-Bard, and Schachter-Singer (two-factor theory).

• Example: Feeling nervous before an exam (physiological arousal) and interpreting it as anxiety (cognitive appraisal).

Exam Format Overview

• 35 multiple choice questions (2 points each)

• Identification of an example section

• Sections will cover: classical/operant conditioning, "Thinking" terms, developmental stages, motivation/emotion, and memory processes.