Theories of Personality: Structured Study Notes for Psychology 2035A

Theories of Personality

Introduction

Personality psychology explores the enduring patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that make each individual unique. This study guide summarizes major theoretical perspectives and contemporary approaches to understanding personality, as covered in Psychology 2035A.

The Nature of Personality

Definition and Traits

Personality is defined as an individual's unique constellation of consistent behavioral traits. A personality trait is a durable disposition to behave in a particular way across various situations.

• Common personality traits include honesty, moodiness, impulsiveness, and friendliness.

• Traits are relatively stable over time and help predict behavior.

The Five-Factor Model (Big Five)

McCrae and Costa (2003, 2008) identified five higher-order traits known as the Big Five:

• Extraversion: Sociability, assertiveness, and positive emotions.

• Neuroticism: Emotional instability, anxiety, and moodiness.

• Openness to Experience: Imagination, curiosity, and creativity.

• Agreeableness: Trust, altruism, and kindness.

• Conscientiousness: Organization, dependability, and discipline.

These traits provide a comprehensive framework for describing personality differences.

Psychodynamic Perspectives

Overview

Psychodynamic theories, derived from Sigmund Freud's work, emphasize unconscious mental forces and internal conflicts as determinants of personality.

• Personality is shaped by unconscious motives and childhood experiences.

• Key theorists: Sigmund Freud, Anna Freud, Melanie Klein, Alfred Adler, Carl Jung, and object relations theorists.

Psychoanalytic Theory (Freud)

Freud proposed that personality consists of three components:

• Id: The primitive, instinctive component operating on the pleasure principle.

• Ego: The decision-making component operating on the reality principle.

• Superego: The moral component incorporating societal standards of right and wrong.

These components interact across three levels of awareness:

• Conscious: Thoughts and feelings one is aware of at a given time.

• Preconscious: Material just beneath the surface, easily retrievable.

• Unconscious: Deeply buried thoughts and memories influencing behavior.

Defense Mechanisms

Defense mechanisms are unconscious strategies used to protect oneself from anxiety and emotional distress.

Mechanism	Definition	Example
Repression	Keeping distressing thoughts buried in the unconscious	A traumatized person has no recollection of a close brush with death.
Projection	Attributing one's own feelings to another person	A woman who dislikes her boss thinks her boss dislikes her.
Displacement	Diverting emotions to a substitute target	After a parental scolding, a young girl takes her anger out on her little brother.
Reaction Formation	Behaving in a way opposite to one's true feelings	A parent who unconsciously resents a child spoils the child with gifts.
Regression	Reverting to immature patterns of behavior	An adult has a temper tantrum when he does not get his way.
Rationalization	Creating false but plausible excuses	A student watches TV instead of studying, saying additional study would not help.
Identification	Bolstering self-esteem by forming alliances	An insecure young man joins a fraternity to boost his self-esteem.

Research shows that reliance on defense mechanisms increases under stress and excessive use is linked to mental health issues (Cramer, 2015).

Analytical Psychology (Jung)

Carl Jung expanded on Freud's ideas, proposing two layers of the unconscious:

• Personal Unconscious: Similar to Freud's concept, containing personal experiences.

• Collective Unconscious: A storehouse of latent memory traces inherited from ancestral past, shared by the human race.

The collective unconscious contains archetypes—emotionally charged images and thought forms with universal meaning, often manifesting in dreams, art, and literature.

Evaluation of Psychodynamic Theories

• Contributions: Emphasized unconscious forces, internal conflict, childhood experiences, and defense mechanisms.

• Criticisms: Lack of testability, reliance on case studies, and evidence contradicting central hypotheses. Theories have been criticized for being male-centered and sexist.

Behavioral Perspectives

Overview

Behavioral theories focus on observable behavior and the ways in which personality is shaped by learning and environmental influences.

• Personality is viewed as a collection of response tendencies tied to specific situations.

• Key learning mechanisms: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning.

Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response originally elicited by another stimulus.

• Explains how people acquire emotional responses such as anxiety or phobias.

• Extinction: The gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response.

Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which voluntary responses are controlled by their consequences.

• Responses followed by favorable consequences are strengthened (repeated).

• Responses followed by unfavorable consequences are weakened (not repeated).

Type	Definition	Example
Positive Reinforcement	Response strengthened by arrival of pleasant stimulus	Receiving attention or appreciation for good work.
Negative Reinforcement	Response strengthened by removal of unpleasant stimulus	Turning off a loud alarm by getting out of bed.
Punishment	Response weakened by arrival of unpleasant stimulus	Receiving criticism for poor performance.

Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura)

Bandura emphasized observational learning, where behavior is influenced by watching others (models).

• Requires attention to others' behavior, understanding consequences, and storing information in memory.

• Self-efficacy: One's belief in their ability to perform behaviors leading to expected outcomes.

• High self-efficacy is linked to confidence; low self-efficacy creates doubt and affects performance.

Evaluation of Behavioral Perspectives

• Strengths: Empirical research foundation, explains moderate consistency in behavior.

• Criticisms: Less focus on behavior in modern theories, over-reliance on animal research.

Humanistic Perspectives

Overview

Humanistic theories emphasize the unique qualities of humans, including free will and the drive for personal growth.

• Humans have an innate drive toward personal growth and self-actualization.

• Humans exercise free will and are conscious, rational beings.

Rogers's Person-Centered Theory

Rogers proposed that personality is based on the self-concept: a collection of beliefs about one's own nature, qualities, and behavior.

• Congruence: Self-concept matches actual experience.

• Incongruence: Self-concept does not match reality, leading to anxiety and undermining well-being.

Early experiences, especially parental affection, shape self-concept:

• Conditional affection leads to incongruent self-concept.

• Unconditional affection fosters congruent self-concept.

Maslow's Theory of Self-Actualization

Maslow organized human motives into a hierarchy of needs:

• Basic physiological needs (hunger, thirst)

• Safety and security needs

• Belongingness and love needs

• Esteem needs (achievement, recognition)

• Cognitive needs (knowledge, understanding)

• Self-actualization (fulfillment of potential)

Self-actualizing persons are committed to personal growth, tuned to reality, open, spontaneous, and enjoy rewarding relationships.

Evaluation of Humanistic Perspectives

• Strengths: Identified self-concept as key, highlighted psychological health, foundation for positive psychology.

• Criticisms: Lack of testability, overly optimistic view, inadequate evidence.

Contemporary Empirical Approaches

Narcissism

Narcissism is a personality trait marked by a sense of importance, need for attention, and entitlement. Research shows narcissists have fragile self-concepts and their behavior is driven by the need to maintain self-esteem. Levels of narcissism have increased in recent generations. Types include grandiose and vulnerable narcissism.

Terror Management Theory (TMT)

TMT is based on the idea that human cognition allows awareness of mortality, creating anxiety. This anxiety is buffered by cultural worldviews that promote self-esteem and faith, providing order and meaning. Mortality salience increases self-esteem as an anxiety buffer.

Culture and Personality

Individualism vs. Collectivism

Personality is studied in relation to cultural norms:

• Individualism: Prioritizing personal goals and defining identity by personal attributes.

• Collectivism: Prioritizing group goals and defining identity by group membership.

Individualism fosters self-enhancement, focusing on strengths and positive feedback. Collectivism promotes reflection on shortcomings and greater self-insight.

Holier Than Thou Phenomenon

This phenomenon describes the tendency for people to claim they are more likely to engage in socially desirable behaviors than their peers. Research suggests collectivism may promote greater self-insight than individualism.

Summary Table: Major Theories of Personality

Theory	Main Focus	Key Concepts
Psychodynamic	Unconscious forces, internal conflict	Id, ego, superego, defense mechanisms
Behavioral	Learning, environment	Conditioning, reinforcement, observational learning
Humanistic	Personal growth, self-concept	Self-actualization, congruence, hierarchy of needs
Trait/Empirical	Stable traits, measurement	Big Five, narcissism, cultural influences

References

• Weiten, W., & Hammer, Y. (2018). Psychology Applied to Modern Life (12th ed.).