Deviance, Crime, and Social Control: Study Notes

Deviance, Crime, and Social Control

Deviance: Definitions and Characteristics

Deviance refers to the violation of social norms, which can be beliefs or behaviors that differ from what is considered acceptable in a society. Sociologists study deviance nonjudgmentally, focusing on understanding why norms are violated and why certain acts are judged more harshly than others.

• Deviance can be formal (violating laws) or informal (violating unwritten social expectations).

• It is accompanied by social stigmas, which are negative labels that devalue individuals and alter their self-concept and social identity.

• Perceptions of deviance vary across societies, cultures, and situations, and can change over time.

• Examples of non-criminal deviance include suicide, alcoholism, lying, and mental illness.

Crime: Definitions and Types

Crime is a specific form of deviance involving the violation of society’s formal laws, enforced by political authorities. Not all deviance is criminal, but all crimes are considered deviant.

• Formal deviance: Violates laws (e.g., robbery, theft, rape).

• Informal deviance: Disregards social norms (e.g., swearing in public, not tipping).

Who Decides What is Deviant?

• Groups with authority or power, public attitudes, and laws define deviance.

• Definitions of deviance are influenced by socialization (parents, teachers) and change as individuals age.

• Normalization of deviance: The process by which unacceptable practices become accepted over time.

Measuring Crime

Crime statistics are collected and analyzed to understand the prevalence and types of crime.

• Uniform Crime Report (UCR): Compiled by the FBI, includes crimes reported to police and arrests.

• National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS): Conducted by the Department of Justice, surveys individuals about their experiences as crime victims, including unreported crimes.

Federal crimes include offenses such as assaulting federal officers, bank fraud, cybercrimes, and terrorism.

Types of Deviance and Crime

• Street crimes: Violent and property crimes occurring in public spaces.

• Violent crimes: Murder, rape, assault, robbery, domestic violence.

• Property crimes: Theft, burglary, motor vehicle theft, shoplifting, vandalism, arson.

• Other street crimes: Drug offenses, public order offenses, prostitution.

• Hate crimes: Offenses motivated by bias against race, ethnicity, religion, disability, sexual orientation, or gender identity.

• White-collar crimes: Non-violent crimes committed by high-status individuals in their occupations (e.g., embezzlement, insider trading, fraud).

• Corporate crimes: Crimes committed by executives to benefit themselves or their companies (e.g., price-fixing, tax evasion, environmental violations).

• Cybercrimes: Illegal activities conducted online (e.g., hacking, identity theft, phishing).

• Organized crimes: Activities by groups supplying illegal goods/services (e.g., drug trafficking, illegal gambling, money laundering).

• Victimless crimes: Illegal acts with no direct victim (e.g., drug use, prostitution, illegal gambling).

Table: Types of Crime and Examples

Type of Crime	Examples
Violent Crime	Murder, rape, assault, robbery, domestic violence
Property Crime	Theft, burglary, motor vehicle theft, shoplifting, vandalism, arson
White-collar Crime	Embezzlement, insider trading, fraud, bribery
Corporate Crime	Price-fixing, tax evasion, environmental violations
Cybercrime	Hacking, identity theft, phishing, cyberattacks
Organized Crime	Drug trafficking, illegal gambling, money laundering
Victimless Crime	Drug use, prostitution, illegal gambling
Hate Crime	Bias-motivated assault, vandalism, threats, harassment

Theoretical Perspectives on Deviance

Functionalist Perspective

Functionalists view deviance as a normal part of society, serving both positive and negative functions.

• Dysfunctional deviance: Creates tension, insecurity, erodes trust, decreases confidence in institutions, and is costly.

• Functional deviance: Affirms norms, provides safety valves, bolsters the economy, and triggers social change.

Émile Durkheim’s concept of anomie: A state where social norms are unclear or absent, leading to uncertainty in behavior.

Strain Theory (Robert Merton)

Merton’s strain theory explains deviance as a result of the disconnect between culturally approved goals and the legitimate means to achieve them. People adapt in different ways:

• Conformity: Accepts goals and means (not deviant).

• Innovation: Accepts goals but uses illegitimate means (e.g., cheating, crime).

• Ritualism: Rejects goals but follows legitimate means (e.g., going through the motions at work).

• Retreatism: Rejects both goals and means (e.g., addiction, homelessness).

• Rebellion: Rejects and seeks to replace both goals and means (e.g., revolutionary groups).

Table: Merton's Modes of Adaptation

Mode	Goals	Means	Example
Conformity	Accept	Accept	Working hard for success
Innovation	Accept	Reject	Cheating, theft
Ritualism	Reject	Accept	Going through the motions
Retreatism	Reject	Reject	Drug addiction, homelessness
Rebellion	Replace	Replace	Revolutionary groups

Critical Evaluation of Functionalist and Strain Theories

• Do not fully explain gender differences in crime rates.

• Cannot account for declining crime rates despite poverty/unemployment.

• Focus mainly on lower-class deviance.

Conflict Perspective

Conflict theorists argue that capitalism and social inequality produce crime and deviance. Laws often serve the interests of the powerful, and high-status individuals are less likely to be prosecuted for their crimes.

• Corporate crimes are rarely criminalized or punished.

• Powerful people have more opportunities for deviance.

• Criticisms: Overemphasizes capitalism, downplays street crime, and overlooks some affluent individuals being prosecuted.

Feminist Perspective

Feminist theories focus on gender differences in deviance and crime, and the ways in which patriarchy and gender roles shape both offending and victimization.

• Females are socialized to be more responsible and closely supervised, leading to lower crime rates.

• Patriarchy and gender roles reinforce inequality and normalize female victimization.

• Rape culture describes environments where sexual violence is prevalent and perpetuated by media and culture.

• Criticisms: Does not fully explain how patriarchy victimizes women or address intersectionality (gender, age, class, race/ethnicity).

Symbolic Interactionist Perspective

• Differential Association Theory (Edwin Sutherland): Deviance is learned through interactions with significant others who model deviant behavior.

• Social Disorganization Theory: Crime is more likely in communities with weak social ties and lack of social control.

• Labeling Theory (Howard Becker, Edwin Lemert): Deviance is not inherent in an act but is the result of society’s reaction. Primary deviance is the initial act; secondary deviance occurs when a person adopts a deviant identity due to societal reactions.

• Medicalization of deviance: Treating norm violations as medical disorders.

• Criticisms: Does not explain why deviance occurs before labeling or why crime rates vary by region or time.

Controlling Deviance and Crime

• Social control: Techniques and strategies that regulate behavior.

• Formal social control: Enforced by authorities (e.g., suspension from school).

• Informal social control: Internalized through socialization (e.g., living up to family expectations).

• Control Theory: Deviant behavior decreases when individuals have strong social bonds (attachment, commitment, involvement, belief).

Criminal Justice System

The criminal justice system consists of government agencies (police, courts, prisons) that enforce laws, judge offenders, and attempt to correct behavior through prevention, punishment, and rehabilitation.

• Prevention and intervention: Community programs, police patrols, treatment for substance abuse.

• Punishment: Sentencing, imprisonment, capital punishment (death penalty).

• Rehabilitation: Programs to help offenders reintegrate, such as education and job training.

• Recidivism: Re-arrest for new offenses after release; rates have remained stable since 1999.

Summary Table: Social Control Strategies

Strategy	Description	Example
Prevention	Efforts to stop crime before it occurs	Community outreach, police patrols
Punishment	Penalties for criminal behavior	Imprisonment, fines, death penalty
Rehabilitation	Programs to reform offenders	Education, job training, counseling

Key Terms and Definitions

• Deviance: Violation of social norms.

• Crime: Violation of formal laws.

• Stigma: Negative label that devalues a person.

• Anomie: State of normlessness or confusion about norms.

• Recidivism: Re-offending after punishment or rehabilitation.

• Social control: Mechanisms for regulating behavior.

Example Applications

• White-collar crime: An accountant embezzles funds from a company.

• Cybercrime: A hacker steals credit card information online.

• Corporate crime: A company knowingly sells unsafe products to maximize profit.

• Labeling theory: A student labeled as a "troublemaker" begins to act out more frequently.

Additional info: These notes expand on the original content by providing definitions, examples, and structured tables for clarity. Theoretical perspectives are elaborated for exam preparation.