General Biology Final Exam Review: Evolution, Diversity, Physiology, and Ecology

Study Guide - Smart Notes

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Chapter 23: Evolution of Populations

Hardy-Weinberg Principle

The Hardy-Weinberg Principle describes the genetic equilibrium within a population, stating that allele frequencies will remain constant if certain conditions are met.

Key Conditions: No mutations, random mating, no natural selection, extremely large population size, no gene flow.
Equation:
Application: Used to predict genotype frequencies in a population.

Modes of Selection

Directional Selection: Favors one extreme phenotype.
Disruptive Selection: Favors both extremes over intermediate phenotypes.
Stabilizing Selection: Favors intermediate variants and reduces extremes.

Chapter 24: The Origin of Species

Species Concepts

Biological Species Concept: Defines species as groups of interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups.
Morphological Species Concept: Characterizes species by body shape and structural features.
Ecological Species Concept: Defines species by their ecological niche.
Phylogenetic Species Concept: Defines species as the smallest group sharing a common ancestor.

Speciation

Allopatric Speciation: Geographic isolation leads to speciation.
Sympatric Speciation: Speciation occurs in populations in the same area, often via polyploidy, habitat differentiation, or sexual selection.

Chapter 25: The History of Life on Earth

Radiometric Dating

Radiometric dating uses the decay of radioactive isotopes to estimate the age of rocks and fossils.

Half-life: Time required for half of the parent isotope to decay.
Common methods: Radiometric dating, C-14 dating.

Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics

Earth's plates float on the hot underlying mantle, causing continents to move.
Plate movements affect climate and the distribution of organisms.

Endosymbiosis

Theory explaining the origin of eukaryotes: prokaryotes engulfed aerobic bacteria, which became mitochondria.

Chapter 26: Phylogeny and the Tree of Life

Taxonomy and Classification

Taxonomy: The science of naming and classifying organisms.
Binomial Nomenclature: Genus species format.
Hierarchical Classification: Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species.

Chapter 29: Plant Diversity I

Alternation of Generations

Plants alternate between haploid gametophyte and diploid sporophyte generations.

Gametophyte: Produces gametes by mitosis.
Sporophyte: Produces spores by meiosis.

Vascular Tissue in Plants

Xylem: Transports water and minerals.
Phloem: Transports sugars and organic nutrients.

Chapter 30: Plant Diversity II

Comparison of Plant Groups

	Mosses & Nonvascular	Ferns & Seedless Vascular	Seed Plants (Gymnosperms/Angiosperms)
Gametophyte	Dominant	Reduced, independent	Reduced, dependent on sporophyte
Sporophyte	Reduced, dependent	Dominant	Dominant

Monocots vs. Eudicots

Feature	Monocot	Eudicot
Embryos	One cotyledon	Two cotyledons
Leaf Venation	Parallel	Netlike
Stems	Scattered bundles	Xylem in a ring
Roots	Fibrous	Taproot
Flowers	Multiples of three	Multiples of four or five

Flower Structure

Sepals: Enclose the flower before it opens.
Petals: Attract pollinators.
Stamens: Produce pollen.
Carpels: Produce ovules.

Chapter 32: Animal Diversity

Embryonic Development

Cleavage: Series of mitotic cell divisions.
Blastula: Multicellular stage.
Gastrulation: Formation of embryonic layers.

Body Symmetry

Radial Symmetry: Body arranged around a central axis.
Bilateral Symmetry: Body divided into left and right halves.

Triploblasts and Coelom Types

Coelomate: True body cavity lined by mesoderm.
Pseudocoelomate: Body cavity lined by mesoderm and endoderm.
Acoelomate: No body cavity.

Protostome vs. Deuterostome Development

	Protostome	Deuterostome
Cleavage	Spiral, Determinate	Radial, Indeterminate
Coelom Formation	Solid masses of mesoderm split	Folds of archenteron
Blastopore Fate	Mouth develops	Anus develops

Chapter 35: Vascular Plant Structure, Growth, and Development

Root/Stem Differences

	Monocot	Eudicot
Stem	Scattered bundles	Xylem in a ring
Root	Vascular bundle on ring	Xylem in an X

Chapter 38: Angiosperm Reproduction

Flower Pollination

Wind: Carries pollen to stigma.
Pollinators: Bees, birds, bats, flies, etc.

Dispersal Mechanisms

By wind, animals, or water.

Chapter 40: Basic Principles of Animal Form and Function

Regulation and Homeostasis

Regulator: Uses internal mechanisms to control change.
Conformer: Internal environment changes with external environment.
Homeostasis: Maintaining a stable internal state.
Feedback: Negative feedback reduces stimulus; positive feedback amplifies it.

Thermoregulation

Endotherms: Generate heat from metabolism.
Ectotherms: Gain heat from external sources.

Chapter 42: Circulation and Gas Exchange

Circulatory Systems

Open System: Hemolymph bathes organs directly.
Closed System: Blood is confined to vessels.

Single vs. Double Circulation

Single Circulation: Blood passes through the heart once per circuit.
Double Circulation: Blood passes through the heart twice per circuit.

Countercurrent Exchange

Increases efficiency of gas exchange in gills.

Respiratory System

Pharynx, larynx, trachea, lung, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli.

Chapter 44: Osmoregulation and Excretion

Osmoregulation

Osmoconformer: Isotonic with surroundings.
Osmoregulator: Controls internal osmolarity.

Kidney Function

	In	Out
Proximal Tubule	H+, NH4+	NaCl, H2O, HCO3-
Descending Loop of Henle		H2O
Ascending Loop of Henle		NaCl (passive then active)
Distal Tubule	K+, H+	NaCl, H2O, HCO3-
Collecting Duct		NaCl, Urea, H2O

Chapter 48: Neurons, Synapses, and Signaling

Neuron Structure

Cell Body: Contains most organelles.
Dendrites: Receive signals.
Axon: Transmits signals.
Synapse: Junction between neurons.
Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers.
Glial Cells: Support neurons.

Action Potentials

Resting State: Maintains a potential of -70mV.
Depolarization: Na+ channels open, membrane potential rises.
Repolarization: K+ channels open, membrane potential falls.
Undershoot: K+ channels remain open, membrane becomes more negative.
Returns to resting state: By Na+/K+ pumps.

Saltatory Conduction

Action potentials jump between nodes of Ranvier in myelinated axons.

Chemical Synapse

Neurotransmitters released into synaptic cleft, bind to receptors on postsynaptic cell.

Chapter 50: Sensory and Motor Mechanisms

Parts of the Ear

Outer Ear: Collects sound waves.
Middle Ear: Contains ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes).
Inner Ear: Contains cochlea (hearing) and semicircular canals (equilibrium).

Chapter 52: Introduction to Ecology

Ecology and Niche

Ecology: Study of interactions between organisms and their environment.
Biotic Factors: Living components (plants, animals, bacteria).
Abiotic Factors: Non-living components (water, temperature, soil).
Niche: Role and position of a species in its environment.

Levels of Ecological Study

Organismal, population, community, ecosystem, landscape, global.

Species Distribution

Impacted by biotic and abiotic factors.

Weather vs. Climate

Weather: Short-term atmospheric conditions.
Climate: Long-term patterns.

Biomes

Terrestrial and aquatic biomes defined by climate and dominant life forms.

Zonation in Aquatic Biomes

Neritic, oceanic, photic, aphotic, benthic zones.

Seasonal Turnover & Ocean Upwelling

Mixing of water layers brings nutrients to the surface.

Chapter 53: Population Ecology

Population Dynamics

Population: Group of individuals of the same species.
Density: Number of individuals per unit area.
Dispersion: Pattern of spacing among individuals.

Demography & Life Tables

Tracks birth, death, and migration rates.
Survivorship curves: Type I (low early mortality), Type II (constant mortality), Type III (high early mortality).

Population Growth

Exponential Growth:
Logistic Growth:
K: Carrying capacity.

Life History Strategies

r-selection: High reproductive rate, low parental care.
K-selection: Low reproductive rate, high parental care.

Chapter 54: Community Ecology

Community and Niche

Community: Assemblage of populations of different species.
Ecological Niche: Sum of a species' use of biotic and abiotic resources.
Resource Partitioning: Differentiation of niches enables similar species to coexist.

Interspecific Interactions

Competition: (-/-) Species compete for resources.
Predation: (+/-) One species kills and eats another.
Herbivory: (+/-) Herbivore eats plant or algae.
Parasitism: (+/-) Parasite derives nourishment from host.
Mutualism: (+/+) Both species benefit.
Commensalism: (+/0) One benefits, other unaffected.
Facilitation: (+/+ or 0/+) One species has positive effects on another without direct contact.