General Biology II Final Exam Study Guide: Key Concepts and Review

Chapter 21: Evolution and Genomes

Functions of Homeotic Genes

Homeotic genes are master regulatory genes that control the development of anatomical structures in various organisms. They play a crucial role in determining the identity and arrangement of body segments.

• Definition: Homeotic genes encode transcription factors that regulate the expression of other genes involved in development.

• Example: Hox genes in animals determine the anterior-posterior axis and segment identity.

Evolutionary Elements

Evolutionary biology explores the mechanisms and patterns of evolutionary change, including gene duplication, horizontal gene transfer, and polyploidy.

• Gene Duplication: The process by which a region of DNA is copied, resulting in multiple copies of a gene within the genome.

• Horizontal Gene Transfer: The movement of genetic material between organisms other than by descent.

• Polyploidy: The condition of having more than two complete sets of chromosomes.

Comparative Genomics

Comparative genomics involves comparing the genomes of different species to understand evolutionary relationships and functional genomics.

• Applications: Identifying conserved genes, understanding evolutionary divergence, and tracing lineage-specific adaptations.

Chapter 22: Descent with Modification

Types of Natural Selection

Natural selection is the process by which organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring. There are several types:

• Directional Selection: Favors one extreme phenotype.

• Stabilizing Selection: Favors intermediate phenotypes.

• Diversifying (Disruptive) Selection: Favors both extremes over intermediates.

Speciation

Speciation is the evolutionary process by which populations evolve to become distinct species.

• Allopatric Speciation: Occurs when populations are geographically separated.

• Sympatric Speciation: Occurs without geographic separation, often through polyploidy or behavioral changes.

Chapter 23: Evolution of Populations

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

The Hardy-Weinberg principle describes a population that is not evolving. It provides a mathematical baseline for studying genetic variation.

• Equation: $p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1$

• Conditions: No mutation, random mating, no gene flow, infinite population size, and no selection.

Microevolution

Microevolution refers to changes in allele frequencies within a population over time.

• Mechanisms: Natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow, mutation.

Chapter 26: Phylogeny and the Tree of Life

Phylogenetic Terms

Phylogenetics is the study of evolutionary relationships among species.

• Terms: Sister taxa, outgroup, homology, convergent evolution, basal taxon, clade.

• Phylogenetic Trees: Diagrams that depict evolutionary relationships.

Chapter 27: Bacteria and Archaea

Domain Archaea

Archaea are a domain of single-celled microorganisms distinct from bacteria and eukaryotes.

• Genome: Archaea have unique genetic and biochemical features.

• Prokaryote vs. Eukaryote: Prokaryotes lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.

Chapter 28: Protists

Protist Diversity

Protists are a diverse group of eukaryotic microorganisms.

• Examples: Amoebas, algae, and protozoa.

• Photosynthetic Protists: Important primary producers in aquatic ecosystems.

Chapter 29: Plant Diversity I

Land Plant Adaptations

Plants have evolved adaptations to survive on land, including cuticles, stomata, and vascular tissue.

• Alternation of Generations: Life cycle alternating between haploid gametophyte and diploid sporophyte.

• Key Terms: Gametophyte, sporophyte, sporangia, gametangia.

Chapter 30: Plant Diversity II

Seed Plants

Seed plants include gymnosperms and angiosperms, which reproduce using seeds.

• Angiosperms: Flowering plants with seeds enclosed in fruit.

• Gymnosperms: Seed plants with naked seeds, such as conifers.

• Flower Structure: Male and female parts of flowers (stamen and carpel).

Chapter 31: Fungi

Fungal Life Cycles

Fungi have complex life cycles involving sexual and asexual reproduction.

• Key Terms: Plasmogamy, karyogamy, heterokaryotic, dikaryotic.

• Symbiotic Relationships: Fungi form mutualistic relationships with plants (mycorrhizae).

Chapter 33: Invertebrates

Major Invertebrate Groups

Invertebrates are animals without a backbone, including sponges, cnidarians, mollusks, and arthropods.

• Body Plans: Radial and bilateral symmetry.

• Examples: Earthworms, jellyfish, insects.

Chapter 34: Vertebrates

Chordate Characteristics

Chordates are animals with a notochord, dorsal nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, and post-anal tail.

• Major Groups: Fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals.

Chapter 35: Vascular Plant Structure, Growth, and Development

Plant Organs and Tissues

Vascular plants have specialized organs (roots, stems, leaves) and tissues (xylem, phloem).

• Growth: Meristems are regions of active cell division.

Chapter 36: Resource Acquisition and Transport in Vascular Plants

Transport Mechanisms

Plants transport water, minerals, and sugars through xylem and phloem.

• Transpiration: The loss of water vapor from leaves drives water movement.

Chapter 37: Soil and Plant Nutrition

Plant Nutrients

Plants require essential nutrients from the soil for growth and development.

• Macronutrients: Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium.

• Micronutrients: Iron, manganese, zinc.

Chapter 38: Angiosperm Reproduction and Biotechnology

Flower Structure and Pollination

Angiosperms reproduce sexually through flowers, involving pollination and fertilization.

• Pollen: Male gametophyte.

• Ovule: Female gametophyte.

Chapter 39: Plant Responses to Signals

Plant Hormones

Plants respond to internal and external signals using hormones such as auxins, gibberellins, and ethylene.

• Phototropism: Growth towards light.

• Gravitropism: Growth in response to gravity.

Chapter 40: Animal Form and Function

Animal Body Plans

Animals have diverse body plans adapted to their environments.

• Symmetry: Radial vs. bilateral.

• Tissues: Epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous.

Chapter 41: Animal Nutrition

Digestive Systems

Animals obtain nutrients through various digestive systems.

• Types: Complete vs. incomplete digestive tracts.

Chapter 42: Circulation and Gas Exchange

Circulatory Systems

Animals transport nutrients and gases through open or closed circulatory systems.

• Gas Exchange: Occurs via lungs, gills, or skin.

Chapter 43: The Immune System

Immunity

The immune system defends against pathogens using innate and adaptive mechanisms.

• Innate Immunity: Non-specific defenses.

• Adaptive Immunity: Specific responses involving lymphocytes.

Chapter 44: Osmoregulation and Excretion

Excretory Systems

Animals regulate water and solute balance through excretory organs.

• Examples: Kidneys in vertebrates, Malpighian tubules in insects.

Chapter 45: Hormones and the Endocrine System

Hormonal Regulation

Hormones coordinate physiological processes in animals.

• Major Glands: Pituitary, thyroid, adrenal.

Chapter 46: Animal Reproduction

Reproductive Strategies

Animals reproduce sexually or asexually, with diverse reproductive systems.

• Gametes: Sperm and egg cells.

Chapter 47: Animal Development

Developmental Processes

Animal development involves fertilization, cleavage, gastrulation, and organogenesis.

• Stages: Zygote, blastula, gastrula.

Chapter 48: Neurons, Synapses, and Signaling

Nervous System Function

Neurons transmit electrical and chemical signals throughout the body.

• Synapse: Junction between neurons.

• Action Potential: Electrical impulse along a neuron.

Chapter 49: Nervous Systems

Organization of Nervous Systems

Nervous systems are organized into central and peripheral components.

• Central Nervous System: Brain and spinal cord.

• Peripheral Nervous System: Nerves and ganglia.

Chapter 50: Sensory and Motor Mechanisms

Sensory Reception

Animals detect stimuli using specialized sensory receptors.

• Motor Response: Muscles and movement.

Chapter 51: Animal Behavior

Behavioral Ecology

Animal behavior is shaped by genetic and environmental factors.

• Types: Innate vs. learned behaviors.

Chapter 52: Introduction to Ecology

Ecological Principles

Ecology studies interactions among organisms and their environment.

• Levels: Organism, population, community, ecosystem, biosphere.

Chapter 53: Population Ecology

Population Dynamics

Population ecology examines factors affecting population size and growth.

• Key Terms: Density, dispersion, carrying capacity ($K$).

• Equation: $\frac{dN}{dt} = rN \left(1 - \frac{N}{K}\right)$

Chapter 54: Community Ecology

Species Interactions

Community ecology explores interactions such as competition, predation, and symbiosis.

• Types: Mutualism, commensalism, parasitism.

Chapter 55: Ecosystems and Restoration Ecology

Nutrient Cycles

Ecosystems cycle energy and nutrients through biotic and abiotic components.

• Cycles: Water, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus.

• Energy Flow: Energy flows from producers to consumers.

Chapter 56: Conservation Biology and Global Change

Biodiversity and Conservation

Conservation biology aims to protect species, habitats, and ecosystems from extinction and degradation.

• Threats: Habitat loss, climate change, invasive species.

• Greenhouse Effect: Warming of Earth due to atmospheric gases.

Table: Types of Species Interactions

Interaction	Effect on Species 1	Effect on Species 2	Example
Mutualism	+	+	Bees and flowering plants
Commensalism	+	0	Barnacles on whales
Parasitism	+	-	Ticks on mammals
Competition	-	-	Plants competing for sunlight
Predation	+	-	Lions hunting zebras

Additional info: Some content was expanded for clarity and completeness based on standard General Biology II topics.