General Biology Study Guide: Cell Structure, Membrane Function, Metabolism, Respiration, and Photosynthesis

Study Guide - Smart Notes

Tailored notes based on your materials, expanded with key definitions, examples, and context.

Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells: Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, while eukaryotic cells possess these structures.
Cell Theory: All living things are composed of cells; cells are the basic unit of life; all cells arise from pre-existing cells.
Organelles and Their Functions: Specialized structures within eukaryotic cells (e.g., nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum) perform distinct functions.
Endomembrane System: A network of membranes within eukaryotic cells involved in synthesis, transport, and modification of cellular products.
Endosymbiont Theory: Explains the origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts as formerly free-living prokaryotes engulfed by ancestral eukaryotic cells.
Microscopy Techniques: Methods for visualizing cells and their components, including light and electron microscopy.

Differentiating prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells based on internal structures.
Describing the role and path of a protein through the endomembrane system (ER → Golgi → Vesicle → Membrane).
Identifying parts of a cell using various types of microscopes.
Explaining the evidence supporting the endosymbiont theory.

The mitochondrion contains its own DNA and ribosomes, supporting the endosymbiont theory.

Fluid Mosaic Model: Describes the cell membrane as a dynamic structure with proteins floating in or on the fluid lipid bilayer.
Phospholipid Bilayer and Membrane Proteins: The bilayer forms the basic structure; proteins serve as channels, receptors, and enzymes.
Passive vs. Active Transport: Passive transport (diffusion, osmosis) does not require energy; active transport requires ATP.
Osmosis, Diffusion, Facilitated Diffusion: Movement of water and solutes across membranes.
Ion Pumps (e.g., sodium-potassium pump): Use ATP to move ions against their concentration gradients.
Tonicity (Hypertonic, Hypotonic, Isotonic): Describes the relative concentration of solutes in solutions separated by a membrane.
Endocytosis and Exocytosis: Bulk transport of materials into and out of cells via vesicles.

Explaining how different substances cross the membrane (e.g., gases, ions, large molecules).
Describing the structure and role of membrane proteins (e.g., aquaporins, carrier proteins).
Predicting cell behavior in various solutions (turgid vs. plasmolyzed vs. shriveled).

In a hypertonic solution, animal cells lose water and may shrivel.

(Fick's law of diffusion)

Metabolic Pathways: Series of chemical reactions in cells, each catalyzed by a specific enzyme.
Energy Transformations (Thermodynamics): Laws governing energy changes; first law (energy conservation), second law (entropy).
ATP: Structure and Hydrolysis: ATP stores energy in phosphate bonds; hydrolysis releases energy for cellular work.
Enzymes: Function and Regulation: Biological catalysts that speed up reactions; regulated by inhibitors and activators.
Activation Energy: Minimum energy required to start a chemical reaction.
Allosteric Regulation and Feedback Inhibition: Enzyme activity modulated by molecules binding at sites other than the active site.
Coupling of Exergonic and Endergonic Reactions: Energy released from exergonic reactions powers endergonic processes.

Interpreting diagrams of metabolic pathways and enzyme action.
Defining and distinguishing between anabolic and catabolic pathways.
Describing how ATP powers cellular work.
Analyzing enzyme activity under different conditions (pH, temperature, inhibitors).
Explaining cooperativity and enzyme regulation mechanisms.

Glycolysis is a catabolic pathway that breaks down glucose to produce ATP.

(Gibbs free energy equation)

Overview of Cellular Respiration: Glycolysis → Pyruvate oxidation → Citric acid cycle → Oxidative phosphorylation.
ATP Yield from Each Stage: Quantifies energy produced at each step.
NADH and FADH2 as Electron Carriers: Transport electrons to the electron transport chain.
Fermentation Pathways: Anaerobic processes that regenerate NAD+ for glycolysis.
Chemiosmosis and ATP Synthase: Use of a proton gradient to drive ATP synthesis.
Role of Mitochondria: Site of aerobic respiration in eukaryotic cells.

Tracing the path of glucose through cellular respiration and listing key outputs at each stage.
Differentiating aerobic respiration from fermentation.
Identifying where NADH and ATP are produced and consumed.
Describing how the electron transport chain generates a proton gradient for ATP synthesis.
Explaining the role of Acetyl-CoA as a link between glycolysis and the citric acid cycle.

During fermentation, cells produce ATP without oxygen by regenerating NAD+ from NADH.

Light Reactions vs. Calvin Cycle: Light reactions convert solar energy to chemical energy; Calvin cycle uses that energy to fix carbon.
Chloroplast Structure: Contains thylakoids, stroma, and grana; site of photosynthesis.
Linear vs. Cyclic Electron Flow: Pathways for electron movement during light reactions.
Role of Photosystems I and II: Protein complexes that capture light energy and transfer electrons.
Photophosphorylation vs. Oxidative Phosphorylation: ATP synthesis in chloroplasts vs. mitochondria.
Carbon Fixation (Calvin Cycle): Incorporation of CO2 into organic molecules.

Oxygen released during photosynthesis comes from the splitting of water molecules in the light reactions.