Microbiology Study Notes: Chapters 1–8 (History, Chemistry, Cell Structure, Microscopy, Metabolism, Growth, Control, Genetics)

{"type":"doc","content":[{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":2},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Chapter 1: A Brief History of Microbiology"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"What is a Microbe?"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Microbes are organisms that are typically microscopic, consisting of single cells or a few cells. They include bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, microscopic algae, and some multicellular animal parasites. Microbes can be both beneficial and harmful to humans and the environment."}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Types of Microbes:"},{"type":"text","text":" Bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, microscopic algae, multicellular animal parasites (e.g., helminths)."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Roles:"},{"type":"text","text":" Cause disease, aid digestion, strengthen the immune system, decompose waste, and produce medicines."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Cell Types:"},{"type":"text","text":" Can be prokaryotic (no nucleus) or eukaryotic (with nucleus); may be unicellular or multicellular."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Microbes in Our Lives"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Few microbes are pathogenic; most are beneficial."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Generate oxygen via photosynthesis."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Produce chemicals (ethanol, acetone, vitamins)."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Knowledge of microbes helps prevent food spoilage and disease, and understand disease transmission."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"The Microbiome"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Collection of all microbes (bacteria, viruses, etc.) living in and on the human body."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Any body part exposed to the environment contains microbes, especially the gut."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Naming and Classifying Microorganisms"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Scientific Nomenclature:"},{"type":"text","text":" Developed by Carolus Linnaeus (1735); uses two names: "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"italic"}],"text":"genus"},{"type":"text","text":" and "},{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"italic"}],"text":"specific epithet"},{"type":"text","text":"."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Major Groups of Microorganisms"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Bacteria:"},{"type":"text","text":" Prokaryotes, single-celled, peptidoglycan cell walls, divide by binary fission, can be motile via flagella."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Archaea:"},{"type":"text","text":" Prokaryotes, live in extreme environments, lack peptidoglycan, include methanogens, halophiles, thermophiles."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Fungi:"},{"type":"text","text":" Eukaryotes, chitin cell walls, include yeasts (unicellular), molds, and mushrooms (multicellular)."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Protozoa:"},{"type":"text","text":" Eukaryotes, motile via pseudopods, flagella, or cilia, can be free-living or parasitic."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Algae:"},{"type":"text","text":" Eukaryotes, cellulose cell walls, photosynthetic, found in aquatic environments."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Viruses:"},{"type":"text","text":" Acellular, consist of DNA or RNA core surrounded by protein coat, require host cell for replication."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Multicellular Animal Parasites:"},{"type":"text","text":" Eukaryotes, include helminths (flatworms, roundworms), some stages are microscopic."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Classification of Microorganisms"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Three Domains (Carl Woese, 1978):"},{"type":"text","text":" Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya (includes protists, fungi, plants, animals)."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Historical Milestones"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"First observations of microbes: Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1623–1673)."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Debate over spontaneous generation vs. biogenesis (Rudolf Virchow, 1858)."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Germ theory: Microbes cause disease; proven by transferring microbes between animals."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Pasteurization: Prevents food spoilage by heating."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Aseptic surgery: Prevents microbial contamination during surgery."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Prevention and Treatment of Diseases"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Vaccination:"},{"type":"text","text":" Edward Jenner (1796) used cowpox to immunize against smallpox."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Chemotherapy:"},{"type":"text","text":" Use of chemicals to treat disease; includes synthetic drugs and antibiotics (e.g., penicillin by Alexander Fleming, 1928)."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Definitions"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Bacteriology:"},{"type":"text","text":" Study of bacteria"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Mycology:"},{"type":"text","text":" Study of fungi"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Parasitology:"},{"type":"text","text":" Study of protozoa and parasitic worms"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Immunology:"},{"type":"text","text":" Study of immunity"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Virology:"},{"type":"text","text":" Study of viruses"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Microbial genetics:"},{"type":"text","text":" Study of inheritance in microbes"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Molecular biology:"},{"type":"text","text":" Study of how DNA directs protein synthesis"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Recycling Vital Elements"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Bacteria recycle carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Microbial ecology:"},{"type":"text","text":" Study of microbe-environment relationships."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Bacteria degrade organic matter and pollutants."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Biotechnology and Biofilms"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Microbes used in biotechnology (e.g., yeast in fermentation)."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Biofilms:"},{"type":"text","text":" Microbial communities attached to surfaces; can cause infections and resist antibiotics."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Emerging Infectious Diseases (EIDs)"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"New or increasing diseases caused by pathogens overcoming host resistance."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Can be viral or bacterial; antibiotic resistance is a concern."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":2},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Chapter 2: The Chemistry of Microbiology"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Structure of Atoms"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Atoms are the smallest units of matter, composed of protons (+), neutrons (0), and electrons (-). The number of protons defines the element, while varying neutrons create isotopes."}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Atomic number:"},{"type":"text","text":" Number of protons"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Atomic mass:"},{"type":"text","text":" Number of protons + neutrons"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Electron Configuration and Chemical Bonds"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Electrons occupy shells; outermost shell is the valence shell."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Atoms form molecules to fill their valence shells via chemical bonds:"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Covalent bonds:"},{"type":"text","text":" Sharing electrons"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Ionic bonds:"},{"type":"text","text":" Transfer of electrons (cation +, anion -)"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Hydrogen bonds:"},{"type":"text","text":" Weak attraction between H and O/N atoms"}]}]}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Molecular Mass and Moles"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Molecular mass: Sum of atomic masses in a molecule (unit: dalton, Da)"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"One mole = molecular mass in grams"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Chemical Reactions"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Involve making/breaking bonds; energy changes occur."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Endergonic:"},{"type":"text","text":" Absorb energy"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Exergonic:"},{"type":"text","text":" Release energy"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Synthesis (anabolism):"},{"type":"text","text":" Building molecules"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Decomposition (catabolism):"},{"type":"text","text":" Breaking down molecules"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Water and pH"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Water is polar, an excellent solvent, and temperature buffer."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"pH:"},{"type":"text","text":" "},{"type":"inlineMath","attrs":{"latex":"pH = -\\log_{10}[H^+]"}}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Most organisms grow best at pH 6.5–8.5; pure water is neutral (pH 7)."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Organic Molecules and Macromolecules"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Organic compounds contain C and H; functional groups determine properties."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Monomers join via dehydration synthesis to form polymers."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Major macromolecules: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":4},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Carbohydrates"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Monomer: monosaccharides (e.g., glucose)"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"General formula: "},{"type":"inlineMath","attrs":{"latex":"(CH_2O)_n"}}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Polysaccharides: starch, glycogen, dextran, cellulose"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":4},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Lipids"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Insoluble in water; nonpolar"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Simple lipids: saturated (no double bonds), unsaturated (one or more double bonds)"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Complex lipids: phospholipids (glycerol, 2 fatty acids, phosphate group)"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Steroids: four carbon rings"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":4},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Proteins"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Composed of amino acids (20 types), joined by peptide bonds"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Levels of structure: primary, secondary (helix/sheet), tertiary (3D folding), quaternary (multiple polypeptides)"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Denaturation: loss of structure/function due to hostile environment"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":4},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Nucleic Acids"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Monomer: nucleotide (sugar, phosphate, nitrogenous base)"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"DNA: double helix, deoxyribose, A-T and G-C base pairing"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"RNA: single-stranded, ribose, A-U and G-C base pairing"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"ATP: energy currency, composed of ribose, adenine, and three phosphates"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":2},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Chapter 3: Microscopy, Staining, and Classification"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Microscopy: The Instruments"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Microscopes use light or electrons to visualize small objects."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Magnification:"},{"type":"text","text":" Total = objective lens × ocular lens"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Resolution:"},{"type":"text","text":" Ability to distinguish two points; improved by shorter wavelengths."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":4},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Types of Light 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Growth"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Binary fission, budding, fragmentation."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Generation time: time for cell to divide; "},{"type":"inlineMath","attrs":{"latex":"\\text{Total cells} = 2^{\\text{number of generations}}"}}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Growth phases: lag, log, stationary, death."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Measuring Microbial Growth"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Plate counts:"},{"type":"text","text":" Count colonies (30–300 per plate); use serial 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Environment"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Terminology"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Sepsis:"},{"type":"text","text":" Bacterial contamination"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Asepsis:"},{"type":"text","text":" Absence of pathogens"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Sterilization:"},{"type":"text","text":" Destroying all microbial life"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Disinfection:"},{"type":"text","text":" Destroying harmful microbes (non-living 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microbes"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Bacteriostasis:"},{"type":"text","text":" Inhibits growth"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Microbial Death Curve"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Death rate is exponential; decimal reduction time (DRT) is time to kill 90%."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Factors Affecting Effectiveness"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Number of microbes, environment, exposure time, microbial characteristics."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Actions of Control Agents"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Alter membrane permeability, damage proteins, damage nucleic acids."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Physical Methods"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Heat:"},{"type":"text","text":" Denatures proteins; includes moist heat (autoclave, boiling, pasteurization) and dry heat (flaming, incineration, hot-air)."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Filtration:"},{"type":"text","text":" Removes microbes from liquids/air; HEPA and membrane filters."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Low Temperature:"},{"type":"text","text":" Bacteriostatic (refrigeration, freezing, lyophilization)."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"High Pressure:"},{"type":"text","text":" Denatures proteins."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Desiccation:"},{"type":"text","text":" Prevents metabolism."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Osmotic Pressure:"},{"type":"text","text":" High salt/sugar causes plasmolysis."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Radiation:"},{"type":"text","text":" Ionizing (damages DNA), nonionizing (UV, forms thymine dimers), microwaves (heat)."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Chemical Methods"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Phenol/Phenolics:"},{"type":"text","text":" Disrupt membranes; effective against mycobacteria."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Bisphenols:"},{"type":"text","text":" Disrupt membranes (e.g., triclosan)."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Essential Oils:"},{"type":"text","text":" Plant-derived antimicrobials."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Halogens:"},{"type":"text","text":" Iodine (protein synthesis), chlorine (oxidizing agent)."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Alcohols:"},{"type":"text","text":" Denature proteins, dissolve lipids; ineffective against endospores."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Heavy Metals:"},{"type":"text","text":" Denature proteins (e.g., silver, mercury, copper, zinc)."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Surfactants:"},{"type":"text","text":" Lower surface tension (soaps, quats)."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Chemical Food Preservatives:"},{"type":"text","text":" Sulfur dioxide, organic acids, antibiotics (nisin, natamycin)."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Aldehydes:"},{"type":"text","text":" Inactivate proteins (formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde)."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Chemical Sterilization:"},{"type":"text","text":" Gaseous agents (ethylene oxide), plasma, supercritical fluids, peroxygens."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Testing Disinfectants"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Use-dilution test:"},{"type":"text","text":" Metal cylinders dipped in bacteria, then disinfectant."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Disk-diffusion method:"},{"type":"text","text":" Chemical-soaked disks on culture; zone of inhibition measured."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":2},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"