Genetics Exam 2 Study Guide: Sex Determination, Chromosomal Variation, DNA Structure, Replication, Transcription, and Translation

{"type":"doc","content":[{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":2},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Sex Determination & Sex Chromosomes"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Human Sex Determination"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Sex determination in humans involves both chromosomal composition and gene expression. The genotypic sex is defined by the sex chromosomes (XX for female, XY for male), while phenotypic sex refers to the observable physical and reproductive traits."}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Genotypic sex:"},{"type":"text","text":" XX (female), XY (male)"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Phenotypic sex:"},{"type":"text","text":" Physical characteristics determined by gene expression"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"SRY gene:"},{"type":"text","text":" Located on the Y chromosome; encodes testis-determining factor (TDF) and initiates male development"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Pseudoautosomal regions (PARs):"},{"type":"text","text":" Regions on X and Y chromosomes that can recombine during meiosis"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":4},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Homogametic vs. Heterogametic"}]},{"type":"table","content":[{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Term"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Meaning"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Human Example"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Homogametic"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Two like sex chromosomes"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"XX"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Heterogametic"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Two unlike sex chromosomes"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"XY"}]}]}]}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Additional info:"},{"type":"text","text":" Other organisms use different systems, e.g., ZW/ZZ in birds."}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Sex-Linked Inheritance"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Traits linked to sex chromosomes, especially the X chromosome, show unique inheritance patterns. Males are hemizygous for X-linked genes, meaning they have only one copy."}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"X-linked recessive inheritance:"},{"type":"text","text":" Males express the trait if they inherit the allele; females can be carriers"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Punnett squares:"},{"type":"text","text":" Used to predict probabilities of affected offspring"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Example:"},{"type":"text","text":" Red-green color blindness"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Nondisjunction"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Nondisjunction is the failure of chromosomes to separate properly during meiosis, resulting in abnormal chromosome numbers."}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Klinefelter syndrome:"},{"type":"text","text":" 47, XXY; phenotypically male, infertility, breast development"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Turner syndrome:"},{"type":"text","text":" 45, X; phenotypically female, underdeveloped ovaries, short stature"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Other syndromes:"},{"type":"text","text":" 47, XXX (Triple X), 47, XYY (Jacobs syndrome)"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"X-Inactivation, Barr Bodies & Lyon Hypothesis"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Dosage compensation ensures equal expression of X-linked genes. X-inactivation leads to the formation of Barr bodies, following the N−1 rule."}]},{"type":"table","content":[{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Karyotype"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Barr Bodies"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"XY"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"0"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"XX"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"1"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"XXY"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"1"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"XXX"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"2"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"XXXX"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"3"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"XO"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"0"}]}]}]}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Lyon hypothesis:"},{"type":"text","text":" X-inactivation is random; females are genetic mosaics"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Example:"},{"type":"text","text":" Calico cats"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Exception:"},{"type":"text","text":" Some genes escape X-inactivation, especially in PARs"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Sex Determination in Other Organisms"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Drosophila:"},{"type":"text","text":" Sex determined by X:A ratio (X chromosome to autosome set)"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Temperature-dependent sex determination:"},{"type":"text","text":" Seen in reptiles; pivotal temperature produces 1:1 sex ratio"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":2},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Chromosome Mutations & Extranuclear Inheritance"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Aneuploidy"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Aneuploidy is the gain or loss of individual chromosomes, distinct from polyploidy (gain of entire sets)."}]},{"type":"table","content":[{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Term"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Chromosome Constitution"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Monosomy"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"2n − 1"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Normal diploid"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"2n"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Trisomy"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"2n + 1"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Tetrasomy"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"2n + 2"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Triploidy"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"3n"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Tetraploidy"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"4n"}]}]}]}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Nondisjunction:"},{"type":"text","text":" Can occur in meiosis I (homologs fail to separate) or meiosis II (sister chromatids fail to separate)"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Clinical Examples of Aneuploidy"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Down syndrome:"},{"type":"text","text":" Trisomy 21; increased risk with maternal age"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Patau syndrome:"},{"type":"text","text":" Trisomy 13"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Edwards syndrome:"},{"type":"text","text":" Trisomy 18"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Haploinsufficiency:"},{"type":"text","text":" One normal gene copy is insufficient for normal function"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Polyploidy"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Autopolyploid:"},{"type":"text","text":" Multiple copies of the same genome"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Allopolyploid:"},{"type":"text","text":" Chromosome sets from different species"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Chromosomal Structural Mutations"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Deletion:"},{"type":"text","text":" Loss of chromosome segment"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Duplication:"},{"type":"text","text":" Copying of chromosome segment; can lead to gene amplification and evolution"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Inversion:"},{"type":"text","text":" Segment breaks, rotates 180°, reinserts; gene order changes"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Translocation:"},{"type":"text","text":" Movement of material to another chromosome; reciprocal translocation involves exchange between nonhomologous chromosomes"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Robertsonian translocation:"},{"type":"text","text":" Fusion of two acrocentric chromosomes; associated with familial Down syndrome"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Fragile Sites & Fragile X Syndrome"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Fragile sites:"},{"type":"text","text":" Chromosome regions prone to breakage"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Fragile X syndrome:"},{"type":"text","text":" Expansion of FMR1 trinucleotide repeat; genetic anticipation (repeat number increases across generations)"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Extranuclear Inheritance"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Organelle heredity:"},{"type":"text","text":" Mitochondria and chloroplasts contain DNA; traits show maternal inheritance"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Infectious heredity:"},{"type":"text","text":" Traits transmitted by infectious agents in cytoplasm"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Maternal effect:"},{"type":"text","text":" Offspring phenotype determined by mother's nuclear genotype"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":4},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Heteroplasmy"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Cells contain a mixture of normal and mutant mitochondria, leading to variable disease severity."}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Examples:"},{"type":"text","text":" MERRF, LHON, Kearns-Sayre syndrome"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":4},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Maternal Inheritance vs. Maternal Effect"}]},{"type":"table","content":[{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Maternal Inheritance"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Maternal Effect"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Organelle DNA inherited through cytoplasm"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Mother's nuclear genotype controls early phenotype"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Trait follows organelle inheritance"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Gene products deposited in egg"}]}]}]}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Example:"},{"type":"text","text":" Snail shell coiling determined by mother's genotype"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":2},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"DNA Structure & Analysis"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Requirements of Genetic Material"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Replicate"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Store information"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Express information"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Allow variation through mutation"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Central Dogma"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Describes the flow of genetic information: DNA → RNA → protein."}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Exceptions:"},{"type":"text","text":" Reverse transcription (RNA → DNA), RNA replication (RNA → RNA), functional noncoding RNAs"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Experiments Demonstrating DNA as Genetic Material"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Griffith:"},{"type":"text","text":" Transformation in bacteria"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Avery, MacLeod & McCarty:"},{"type":"text","text":" DNA is the transforming principle"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Hershey & Chase:"},{"type":"text","text":" DNA enters cells and directs viral reproduction"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"DNA Chemistry & Structure"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Nucleoside:"},{"type":"text","text":" Base + sugar"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Nucleotide:"},{"type":"text","text":" Base + sugar + phosphate"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Purines:"},{"type":"text","text":" Adenine, Guanine"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Pyrimidines:"},{"type":"text","text":" Cytosine, Thymine, Uracil"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"DNA:"},{"type":"text","text":" A, T, G, C; deoxyribose"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"RNA:"},{"type":"text","text":" A, U, G, C; ribose"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Phosphodiester bonds:"},{"type":"text","text":" Link nucleotides"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Chargaff's Rules"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"For double-stranded DNA: A = T, G = C"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"DNA Double Helix"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Double stranded, helical, antiparallel"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Complementary base pairing: A-T (2 H bonds), G-C (3 H bonds)"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Alternative DNA Forms"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"B-DNA:"},{"type":"text","text":" Common physiological form, right-handed"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"A-DNA:"},{"type":"text","text":" Right-handed, compact, dehydration/high salt"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Z-DNA:"},{"type":"text","text":" Left-handed, zig-zag"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"RNA Types"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"mRNA:"},{"type":"text","text":" Template for protein synthesis"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"rRNA:"},{"type":"text","text":" Ribosome structure/function"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"tRNA:"},{"type":"text","text":" Amino acid transport"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Other:"},{"type":"text","text":" snRNA, miRNA, siRNA, lncRNA"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"DNA/RNA Analysis Techniques"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Denaturation:"},{"type":"text","text":" Separation of strands by heat"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Renaturation:"},{"type":"text","text":" Re-pairing of complementary strands"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Molecular hybridization:"},{"type":"text","text":" Binding of complementary sequences"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"FISH:"},{"type":"text","text":" Fluorescent probes locate DNA regions"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Gel electrophoresis:"},{"type":"text","text":" Separates fragments by size"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":2},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"DNA Replication & Recombination"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Semiconservative Replication"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Each new DNA molecule contains one parental and one new strand."}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Models:"},{"type":"text","text":" Conservative, semiconservative, dispersive"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Meselson-Stahl Experiment"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Used ¹⁵N and ¹⁴N in E. coli to prove semiconservative replication"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Origin of Replication"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"ORI:"},{"type":"text","text":" Site where replication begins"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Replication forks:"},{"type":"text","text":" Created as DNA opens"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Prokaryotes:"},{"type":"text","text":" One origin (oriC)"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Eukaryotes:"},{"type":"text","text":" Multiple origins"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Replication Enzymes"}]},{"type":"table","content":[{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Enzyme"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Function"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"DnaA"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Initiator; binds origin"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Helicase"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Unwinds DNA"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"SSB proteins"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Stabilize separated strands"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Gyrase/topoisomerase"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Relieves supercoiling"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Primase"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Synthesizes RNA primer"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"DNA polymerase III"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Major synthesis"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"DNA polymerase I"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Removes primers, fills gaps"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"DNA ligase"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Seals nicks"}]}]}]}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"DNA synthesis:"},{"type":"text","text":" 5′ → 3′ direction"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Proofreading:"},{"type":"text","text":" 3′ → 5′ exonuclease activity"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Leading vs. Lagging Strand"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Leading:"},{"type":"text","text":" Continuous synthesis"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Lagging:"},{"type":"text","text":" Discontinuous, Okazaki fragments"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Sequence:"},{"type":"text","text":" Open → stabilize → prime → synthesize → remove primers → replace → ligate"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Eukaryotic Replication"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Multiple origins, chromatin structure, nucleosome reorganization"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Specialized DNA polymerases"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Telomeres & Telomerase"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Telomeres:"},{"type":"text","text":" Repetitive DNA at chromosome ends; protect from degradation"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Telomerase:"},{"type":"text","text":" Ribonucleoprotein with RNA template and reverse transcriptase; extends telomeres"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Activity:"},{"type":"text","text":" High in stem and cancer cells, low in somatic cells"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Recombination"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Homologous recombination exchanges genetic material"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Produces Holliday junction"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Important for genetic diversity and DNA repair"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":2},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Genetic Code & Transcription"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Genetic Code"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"mRNA read in codons (3 nucleotides)"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"64 codons specify 20 amino acids and translation signals"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Properties of the Genetic Code"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Triplet:"},{"type":"text","text":" 3 nucleotides per codon"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Unambiguous:"},{"type":"text","text":" Each codon specifies one amino acid"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Degenerate:"},{"type":"text","text":" Multiple codons for same amino acid"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Commaless:"},{"type":"text","text":" No spaces between codons"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Nonoverlapping:"},{"type":"text","text":" Each nucleotide part of one codon"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Colinear:"},{"type":"text","text":" Order of codons matches protein sequence"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Nearly universal:"},{"type":"text","text":" Same code in most organisms"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Start and Stop Codons"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Start:"},{"type":"text","text":" AUG (methionine; fMet in bacteria)"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Stop:"},{"type":"text","text":" UAA, UAG, UGA (no amino acid, recognized by release factors)"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Codon-Anticodon Pairing & Wobble"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Codon:"},{"type":"text","text":" mRNA"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Anticodon:"},{"type":"text","text":" tRNA"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Wobble hypothesis:"},{"type":"text","text":" Flexibility at third codon position"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Mutations and the Reading Frame"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Frameshift:"},{"type":"text","text":" Insertion/deletion shifts reading frame"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Nonsense:"},{"type":"text","text":" Premature stop codon"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Exceptions to the Universal Genetic Code"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Human mitochondria:"},{"type":"text","text":" UGA codes for Trp, AUA for Met, AGA/AGG as STOP"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Mycoplasma:"},{"type":"text","text":" UGA codes for Trp"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Ciliates:"},{"type":"text","text":" UAA/UAG code for glutamine"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Overlapping Genes"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Different reading frames produce different polypeptides"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Common in viral genomes"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Transcription"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"RNA polymerase:"},{"type":"text","text":" Synthesizes RNA from DNA template; no primer needed"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Bacterial Transcription"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Initiation:"},{"type":"text","text":" RNA polymerase binds promoter; sigma factor aids recognition"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Promoter sequences:"},{"type":"text","text":" TTGACA, TATAAT (Pribnow box)"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Elongation:"},{"type":"text","text":" Sigma dissociates; RNA chain grows"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Termination:"},{"type":"text","text":" Hairpin structure signals end"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Transcription"}]},{"type":"table","content":[{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Prokaryotes"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Eukaryotes"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"No nucleus; sigma factor"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Transcription in nucleus; transcription factors"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Simpler regulation"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Complex regulation; chromatin"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"No introns"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Introns and exons"}]}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Eukaryotic RNA Polymerases"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"RNA Pol I:"},{"type":"text","text":" rRNA (nucleolus)"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"RNA Pol II:"},{"type":"text","text":" mRNA, snRNA, miRNA, lncRNA"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"RNA Pol III:"},{"type":"text","text":" tRNA, 5S rRNA"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Eukaryotic Transcription Regulation"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"TATA box:"},{"type":"text","text":" Core promoter"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Enhancers:"},{"type":"text","text":" Increase transcription"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Silencers:"},{"type":"text","text":" Decrease transcription"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Transcription factors:"},{"type":"text","text":" Activators/repressors"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"RNA Processing"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"5′ cap:"},{"type":"text","text":" Added to 5′ end"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Poly-A tail:"},{"type":"text","text":" Added to 3′ end"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Splicing:"},{"type":"text","text":" Introns removed, exons joined; spliceosome mediates"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"RNA Editing"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Substitution editing:"},{"type":"text","text":" Nucleotide identity changes"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Insertion/deletion editing:"},{"type":"text","text":" Nucleotides added/removed"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Example:"},{"type":"text","text":" ADAR converts adenosine to inosine"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Transcription Inhibition & Clinical Connection"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"α-amanitin:"},{"type":"text","text":" Inhibits RNA polymerase; causes liver/kidney failure"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":2},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Translation and Proteins"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Translation Overview"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Translation uses mRNA codons to build polypeptides. Requires amino acids, mRNA, ribosomes, and tRNAs. Stages: initiation, elongation, termination."}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Ribosome Structure and rDNA"}]},{"type":"table","content":[{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Feature"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Bacterial Ribosome"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Eukaryotic Ribosome"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Complete ribosome"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"70S"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"80S"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Small subunit"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"30S (16S rRNA)"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"40S (18S rRNA)"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Large subunit"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"50S (23S, 5S rRNA)"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"60S (28S, 5.8S, 5S rRNA)"}]}]}]}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"rDNA:"},{"type":"text","text":" Genes encoding rRNA, organized in tandem repeats"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"tRNA: The Adaptor Molecule"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"75-90 nucleotides, cloverleaf structure"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Anticodon:"},{"type":"text","text":" Pairs with mRNA codon"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"3′ CCA end:"},{"type":"text","text":" Amino acid attachment site"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Charging tRNA: Aminoacylation"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase:"},{"type":"text","text":" Enzyme attaches amino acid to tRNA; uses ATP"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"20 synthetases, one per amino acid"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Equation:"},{"type":"text","text":" "},{"type":"inlineMath","attrs":{"latex":"\\text{Amino acid} + \\text{tRNA} + \\text{ATP} \\rightarrow \\text{Aminoacyl-tRNA} + \\text{AMP} + \\text{PP}_i"}}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Bacterial Translation: Initiation"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Requires small/large subunits, mRNA, GTP, initiator tRNA, Mg²⁺, initiation factors"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Shine-Dalgarno sequence:"},{"type":"text","text":" AGGAGG; pairs with 16S rRNA"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Initiator tRNA (fMet) enters P site"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Bacterial Translation: Elongation"}]},{"type":"table","content":[{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Site"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Name"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Main Role"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"A"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Aminoacyl site"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Accepts incoming charged tRNA"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"P"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Peptidyl site"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Holds tRNA with growing peptide"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"E"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Exit site"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Holds uncharged tRNA before exit"}]}]}]}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Peptide bond formation catalyzed by 23S rRNA (peptidyl transferase activity)"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Elongation factors: EF-Tu (tRNA delivery), EF-G (translocation); use GTP"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Bacterial Translation: Termination"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Stop codon enters A site; recognized by release factor (RF1, RF2)"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Hydrolysis releases polypeptide; translation complex disassembles"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Polyribosomes / Polysomes"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Multiple ribosomes translate one mRNA simultaneously"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Allows efficient protein production"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Eukaryotic Translation and the Kozak Sequence"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"80S ribosomes; translation factors"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Initiation complex scans from 5′ cap to AUG in Kozak context: (A/G)NNAUGG"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Kozak sequence improves translation efficiency"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Eukaryotic Closed-Loop Translation"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"eIF4E binds 5′ cap; eIF4G connects cap and poly-A-binding proteins (PABPs)"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"mRNA forms a loop, aiding initiation and ribosome recycling"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Antibiotics That Interrupt Translation"}]},{"type":"table","content":[{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Drug/Class"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Translation Effect"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Aminoglycosides"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Disrupt initiation, cause misreading, interfere with translocation"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Tetracyclines"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Prevent tRNA entry at A site"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Chloramphenicol/linezolid"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Inhibit peptide bond formation at 50S subunit"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Macrolides"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Stall growing chain in exit tunnel"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Puromycin"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Mimics tRNA, causes premature chain termination"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Api137"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Traps release factors after peptide release"}]}]}]}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Mitochondrial ribosomes:"},{"type":"text","text":" Similar to bacterial ribosomes; some antibiotics affect mitochondrial translation (e.g., aminoglycosides, chloramphenicol)"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":2},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Major Comparisons"}]},{"type":"table","content":[{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null,"align":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Comparison"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspa