Beginning Behavioral Research: A Conceptual Primer, 7th edition

In this Section:

1. Brief Table of Contents
2. Full Table of Contents

1. BRIEF TABLE OF CONTENTS

PART I GETTING STARTED

• Chapter 1 Behavioral Research and the Scientific Method
• Chapter 2 From Hunches to Testable Hypotheses
• Chapter 3 Ethical Considerations and Guidelines

PART II OBSERVATION AND MEASUREMENT

• Chapter 4 Methods of Systematic Observation
• Chapter 5 Methods for Looking Within Ourselves
• Chapter 6 Reliability and Validity in Measurement and Research

PART III DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION

• Chapter 7 Randomized Experiments and Causal Inference
• Chapter 8 Nonrandomized Research and Causal Reasoning
• Chapter 9 Survey Research and Subject Recruitment

PART IV DESCRIBING DATA AND DRAWING INFERENCES

• Chapter 10 Summarizing the Data
• Chapter 11 Correlating Variables
• Chapter 12 Understanding p Values and Effect Size Indicators

PART V STATISTICAL TESTS

• Chapter 13 The Comparison of Two Conditions
• Chapter 14 Comparisons of More Than Two Conditions
• Chapter 15 The Analysis of Frequency Tables

Appendices

• Appendix A Reporting Your Research Results
• Appendix B Statistical Tables
• Appendix C Introduction to Meta-Analysis

2. FULL TABLE OF CONTENTS

• Chapter 1: Behavioral Research and the Scientific Method
  • Preview Questions
  • Why Study Research Methods and Data Analysis?
  • What Alternatives Are There to the Scientific Method?
  • How Do Scientists Use Empirical Reasoning?
  • How Is Empirical Reasoning Used in Behavioral Research?
  • How Do Extraempirical Factors Come Into Play?
  • What Does Behavioral Science Cover?
  • How Does Research Go From Descriptive to Relational to Experimental?
  • What Are the Characteristics of Good Researchers?
  • Summary of Ideas
  • Key Terms
  • Multiple-Choice Questions for Review
  • Discussion Questions for Review
  • Answers to Review Questions
• Chapter 2: From Hunches to Testable Hypotheses
  • Preview Questions
  • What Is Meant by a Cycle of Discovery and Justification?
  • What Are Hypothesis-Generating Heuristics?
  • What Is the Potential Role of Serendipity
  • How Can I Do a LiteratureSearch?
  • How Should I Go About Defining Variables?
  • What Identifies “Good” Theories and Working Hypotheses?
  • What Is the Distinction Between an Independent Variable and Dependent Variable?
  • What Belongs in My Research Proposal?
  • Summary of Ideas
  • Key Terms
  • Multiple-Choice Questions for Review
  • Discussion Questions for Review
  • Answers to Review Questions
• Chapter 3: Ethical Considerations and Guidelines
  • Preview Questions
  • How Do Ethical Guidelines in Research Function?
  • What Is Informed Consent, and When Is It Used?
  • How Are Ethics Reviews Done and Acted On?
  • What Are Obstacles to the Rendering of “Full Justice”?
  • How Can a “Relationship of Trust” Be Established?
  • How Do Scientific Quality and Ethical Quality Intertwine?
  • Is Deception in Research Ever Justified?
  • What Is the Purpose of Debriefing, and How Is It Done?
  • How Is Animal Research Governed by Ethical Rules?
  • What Ethical Responsibilities Are There When Writing Up Research?
  • Summary of Ideas
  • Key Terms
  • Multiple-Choice Questions for Review
  • Discussion Questions for Review
  • Answers to Review Questions
• Chapter 4: Methods of Systematic Observation
  • Preview Questions
  • What Is Meant by Systematic Observation?
  • How Do Researchers Simultaneously Participate and Observe?
  • What Can Be Learned from Quantifying Observations?
  • How Are Judgment Studies Done?
  • How Does Content Analysis Work?
  • How Are Situations Simulated in Controlled Settings?
  • What Are Plausible Rival Hypotheses and the Third-Variable Problem?
  • What Is the Distinction Between Reactive and Nonreactive Observation?
  • Summary of Ideas
  • Key Terms
  • Multiple-Choice Questions for Review
  • Discussion Questions for Review
  • Answers to Review Questions
• Chapter 5: Methods for Looking Within Ourselves
  • Preview Questions
  • What Are the Uses and Limitations of Self-Report Measures?
  • What Are Open-Ended and Fixed-Choice Items?
  • How Are Personality and Projective Tests Used?
  • What Is Meant By Measuring Implicit Attitudes?
  • What Are Numerical, Forced-Choice, and Graphic Ratings?
  • What Are Rating Errors, and How Are They Controlled?
  • What Is the Semantic Differential Method?
  • What Are Likert Scales and Thurstone Scales?
  • How Are Items Prepared for a Questionnaire or an Interview?
  • How Are Face-to-Face and Telephone Interviews Done?
  • How Are Behavioral Diaries Used in Research?
  • Summary of Ideas
  • Key Terms
  • Multiple-Choice Questions for Review
  • Discussion Questions for Review
  • Answers to Review Questions
• Chapter 6: Reliability and Validity in Measurement and Research
  • Preview Questions
  • What Is the Difference Between Validity and Reliability?
  • What Are Random and Systematic Errors?
  • What Is the Purpose of Retest and Alternate-Form Reliability?
  • What Is Internal-Consistency Reliability, and How Is It Increased?
  • What Is Acceptable Test-Retest and Internal-Consistency Reliability?
  • How Is the Reliability of Judges Measured?
  • How Is Reliability Related to Replication and External Validity?
  • How Are Content and Criterion Validity Defined?
  • How Is Construct Validity Assessed in Test Development?
  • How Is Construct Validity Relevant to Experimental Design?
  • What Is the Importance of Statistical-Conclusion Validity and Internal Validity?
  • Summary of Ideas
  • Key Terms
  • Multiple-Choice Questions for Review
  • Discussion Questions for Review
  • Answers to Review Questions
• Chapter 7: Randomized Experiments and Causal Inference
  • Preview Questions
  • What Is the Purpose of Randomized Experiments?
  • How Is Random Assignment Accomplished?
  • What Are Between-Subjects Designs?
  • What Is the Formative Logic of Experimental Control
  • What Are Within-Subjects Designs?
  • What Are Factorial Designs?
  • What Is Meant by Counterbalancing the Conditions?
  • Why Is Causality Said To Be “Shrouded in Mystery”?
  • How Do Scientists Logically Puzzle Out Efficient Causality?
  • What Conditions Pose a Threat to Internal Validity?
  • What Are Artifacts in Research?
  • Summary of Ideas
  • Key Terms
  • Multiple-Choice Questions for Review
  • Discussion Questions for Review
  • Answers to Review Questions
• Chapter 8: Nonrandomized Research and Causal Reasoning
  • Preview Questions
  • How Is Causal Reasoning Attempted in the Absence of Randomization?
  • How Is the Third-Variable Problem Relevant?
  • What Is Meant By Subclassification on Propensity Scores?
  • What Are Time-Series Designs and “Found Experiments”?
  • What Within-Subjects Designs Are Used in Single-Case Experiments?
  • How Are Correlations Interpreted in Cross-Lagged Panel Designs?
  • What Is the Purpose of Longitudinal Research Using Cohorts?
  • Summary of Ideas
  • Key Terms
  • Multiple-Choice Questions for Review
  • Discussion Questions for Review
  • Answers to Review Questions
• Chapter 9: Survey Research and Subject Recruitment
  • Preview Questions
  • What Are Opportunity and Probability Samples?
  • What Is Meant by Bias and Instability in Survey Research?
  • Why Do We Not Know “For Sure” the Bias in Sampling?
  • How Is Simple Random Sampling Done?
  • What Are Stratified Random Sampling and Area Probability Sampling?
  • What Did the Literary Digest Case Teach Pollsters?
  • What Are Point Estimates and Interval Estimates?
  • What Are the Benefits of Stratification?
  • How Is Nonresponse Bias Handled in Survey Research?
  • What Are the Typical Characteristics of Volunteer Subjects?
  • How Is Volunteer Bias in Opportunity Samples Managed?
  • Summary of Ideas
  • Key Terms
  • Multiple-Choice Questions for Review
  • Discussion Questions for Review
  • Answers to Review Questions
• Chapter 10: Summarizing the Data
  • Preview Questions
  • How Is Visual Integrity Ensured When Results Are Graphed?
  • How Are Frequencies Displayed in Tables, Bar Graphs, and Line Graphs?
  • How Do Stem-and-Leaf Charts Work?
  • How Are Percentiles Used to Summarize Part of a Batch?
  • How Is an Exploratory Data Analysis Done?
  • How Does Asymmetry Affect Measures of Central Tendency?
  • How Do I Measure How “Spread Out” a Set of Scores Is?
  • What Are Descriptive and Inferential Measures?
  • How Do I Estimate a Confidence Interval Around a Population Mean?
  • What Is Distinctive About the Normal Distribution?
  • Why Are z Scores Called Standard Scores, and How Are They Used?
  • Summary of Ideas
  • Key Terms
  • Multiple-Choice Questions for Review
  • Discussion Questions for Review
  • Answers to Review Questions
• Chapter 11: Correlating Variables
  • Preview Questions
  • What Are Different Forms of Correlations?
  • How Are Correlations Visualized in Scatter Plots?
  • How Is a Product-Moment Correlation Calculated?
  • How Is Dummy Coding Used in Correlation?
  • When Is the Phi Coefficient Used?
  • How Is a Correlation Calculated on Ranks?
  • Summary of Ideas
  • Key Terms
  • Multiple-Choice Questions for Review
  • Discussion Questions for Review
  • Answers to Review Questions
• Chapter 12: Understanding p Values and Effect Size Indicators
  • Preview Questions
  • Why Is It Important to Focus Not Just on p Values?
  • What Is the Reasoning Behind Null Hypothesis Significance Testing?
  • What Is the Distinction Between Type I and Type II Error?
  • What Are One-Tailed and Two-Tailed p Values?
  • What Is the Counternull Statistic?
  • What Is the Purpose of Doing a Power Analysis?
  • How Do I Estimate a Confidence Interval for an Effect Size Correlation?
  • What Can Effect Sizes Tell Us of Practical Importance?
  • What Does Killeen’s p_rep Tell Me?
  • Summary of Ideas
  • Key Terms
  • Multiple-Choice Questions for Review
  • Discussion Questions for Review
  • Answers to Review Questions
• Chapter 13: The Comparison of Two Conditions
  • Preview Questions
  • What Do Signal-to-Noise Ratios Have to Do With t Tests?
  • How Do I Compute an Independent-Sample t Test?
  • What Can a Table of p Values for t Teach Me?
  • What Is an Effect Size Index for an Independent-Sample t?
  • How Do I Interpret Cohen’s d for Independent Groups?
  • How Do I Compute Interval Estimates for Cohen’s d?
  • How Can I Maximize the Independent-Sample t?
  • How Does a Paired t Test Differ From an Independent-Sample t Test?
  • What Is an Effect Size Index for a Paired t?
  • Summary of Ideas
  • Key Terms
  • Multiple-Choice Questions for Review
  • Discussion Questions for Review
  • Answers to Review Questions
• Chapter 14: Comparisons of More Than Two Conditions
  • Preview Questions
  • What Is Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), and How Are F and t Related?
  • How Is Variability Apportioned in a One-Way ANOVA?
  • How Are ANOVA Summary Tables Set Up and Interpreted?
  • How Can I Test for Simple Effects After an Omnibus F?
  • How Is Variability Apportioned in a Two-Way ANOVA?
  • How Do I Interpret Main and Interaction Effects?
  • How Is a Two-Way ANOVA Computed and a Summary Table Set Up?
  • What Are Contrasts, and How Do I Compute Them On More Than Two Groups?
  • What Do r_{effect size r alerting} and r_contrast Tell Me?
  • How Are Contrasts on Multiple Repeated Measures Computed?
  • How Are Latin Square Designs Analyzed?
  • Summary of Ideas
  • Key Terms
  • Multiple-Choice Questions for Review
  • Discussion Questions for Review
  • Answers to Review Questions
• Chapter 15: The Analysis of Frequency Tables
  • Preview Questions
  • What Is the Purpose of Chi-Square (X²)?
  • How Do I Compute 1-df Chi-Squares?
  • How Do I Obtain the p Value, Effect Size, and Confidence Interval?
  • What Is the Relationship Between 1df X ² and Phi?
  • How Do I Deal With Tables Larger Than 2X2?
  • How Is Standardizing the Margins Done, and What Can It Tell Me?
  • What Is a Binomial Effect-Size Display Used For?
  • A Journey Begun
  • Summary of Ideas
  • Key Terms
  • Multiple-Choice Questions for Review
  • Discussion Questions for Review
  • Answers to Review Questions

Appendix A Reporting Your Research Results

• Research Reports in APA Style
• Getting Started
• Title Page
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Method
• Results
• Discussion
• References
• Footnotes
• Tables and Figures
• Appendix
• Writing and Revising

Appendix B Statistical Tables

• B.1. z Values and Their Associated One-Tailed p Values
• B.2. t Values and Their Associated One-Tailed and Two-Tailed p Values
• B.3. F Values and Their Associated p Values
• B.4. r² Values and Their Associated p Values
• B.5. r Values and Their Associated p Values
• B.6. Transformations of r to Fisher zr
• B.7. Transformations of Fisher zr to r

Appendix C Introduction to Meta-Analysis

• The Purpose of Meta-Analysis
• Some Pro and Con Arguments
• Comparing Two Effect Sizes
• Combining Two Effect Sizes
• Obtaining an Overall Significance Level
• Detective-Like Probing of Reported Data
• The File Drawer Problem

Glossary of Terms

References

Name Index

Subject Index