5. Learning
The Concept of Reinforcement
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Table of contents
- 1. The Science of Psychology
- Goals of Psychology
- The Profession of Psychology
- In the Beginning: Wundt, Titchener, and James
- Three Influential Approaches: Gestalt, Psychoanalysis, and Behaviorism
- Modern Perspectives
- Thinking Critically About Critical Thinking
- The Scientific Approach
- Descriptive Methods
- Correlations: Finding Relationships
- The Experiment
- The Guidelines for Doing Research with People
- Animal Research
- 2. The Biological Perspective
- Reductionism and Holistic Models
- Epigenetic Models
- Evolutionary Models
- Structure of the Neuron
- The Neural Impulse
- Neurotransmission
- Methods for Studying Specific Regions of the Brain
- Neuroimaging Techniques
- The Hindbrain
- Structures Under the Cortex: The Limbic System
- The Cortex
- The Association Areas of the Cortex
- The Cerebral Hemispheres
- The Central Nervous System
- The Peripheral Nervous System
- The Pituitary Gland
- Other Endocrine Glands
- 3. Sensation and Perception
- 4. Consciousness
- What is Consciousness?
- Unconscious States and the Unconscious Mind
- Altered States of Consciousness
- The Biology of Sleep
- Why We Sleep
- The Stages of Sleep
- Sleep Disorders
- Why Do We Dream?
- What Do People Dream About?
- How Hypnosis Works
- Meditation
- Dependence
- Stimulants
- Depressants (alcohol, barbituates, opioids)
- Hallucinogens (LSD, MDMA, Marijuana)
- 5. Learning
- Definition of Learning
- Habituation and Sensitization
- Biological Preparedness
- Reward Circuits
- Pavlov's Framework
- Principles of Classical Conditioning
- Applications of Classical Conditioning
- The Contributions of Thorndike and Skinner
- The Concept of Reinforcement
- Schedules of Reinforcement
- The Role of Punishment in Operant Conditioning
- Other Aspects of Operant Conditioning
- Applications of Operant Conditioning: Shaping and Behavior Modification
- Forms of Cognitive Learning
- Learned Helplessness
- Factors that Influence Learning
- Bandura and the Bobo Doll
- The Four Elements of Observational Learning
- 6. Memory
- Three Processes of Memory
- Models of Memory
- Sensory Memory
- Short-Term Memory
- Long-Term Memory
- Retrieval Cues
- Recall and Recognition
- Automatic Encoding: Flashbulb Memories
- The Reconstructive Nature of Long-Term Memory Retrieval: How Reliable are Memories?
- Ebbinghaus and the Forgetting Curve #1
- Reasons We Forget
- The Biological Bases of Memory
- When Memory Fails: Organic Amnesia
- 7. Cognition: Thinking, Intelligence, and Language
- The Basics of Thought
- Problem Solving
- Reasoning and Judgement
- Creativity
- Theories of Intelligence
- Measuring Intelligence
- Test Construction
- Individual Differences in Intelligence
- The Nature/Nurture Issue Regarding Intelligence
- The Levels of Language Analysis
- Development of Language
- Neurolinguistics
- The Relationship Between Language and Thought
- Animal Studies in Language
- 8. Development Across the Life Span
- Lifespan Approach to Development
- Measuring Developmental Change
- Key Issues in Development
- Nature and Nurture
- The Basic Building Blocks of Development
- Fertilization
- Three Stages of Development
- Physical Development
- Cognitive Development
- Psychosocial Development
- Physical Development
- Cognitive Development
- Psychosocial Development
- Physical Development
- Cognitive Development
- Psychosocial Development
- Theories of Physical and Psychological Aging
- Stages of Death and Dying
- Death and Dying in Other Cultures
- 9. Motivation and Emotion
- Defining Motivation
- Early Approaches to Understanding Motivation
- Psychological Needs
- Arousal and Incentive Approaches
- Humanistic Approaches
- Causes of Hunger
- Eating Disorders
- Achievement Motivation
- The Three Elements of Emotion
- Early Theories of Emotion
- Cognitive Theories of Emotion
- Emotional Experience
- Emotional Expression
- Culture and Gender
- 10. Sexuality and Gender
- 11. Stress and Health
- The Relationship Between Stress and Stressors
- Environmental Stressors: Life’s Ups and Downs
- Psychological Stressors: What, me Worry?
- The General Adaptation Syndrome
- The Immune System and Stress
- Health Psychology
- Cognitive Factors in Stress
- Personality Factors in Stress
- Social and Cultural Factors in Stress: People Who Need People
- Coping Strategies
- How Social Support Affects Coping
- 12. Social Psychology
- Conformity
- Group Behavior
- Compliance
- Obedience
- Attitudes
- Attitude Change: The Art of Persuasion
- Cognitive Dissonance
- Impression Formation
- Attribution
- Prejudice and Discrimination
- How People Learn and Overcome Prejudice
- Interpersonal Attraction
- Robert Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love
- Aggression
- Prosocial Behavior
- 13. Theories of Personality
- Theories of Personality
- Culture and Personality
- Freud’s Conception of Personality
- Stages of Personality Development
- The Neo-Freudians
- Current Thoughts on Freud and the Psychodynamic Perspective
- Learning Theories
- Current Thoughts on the Behavioral and Social Cognitive Learning Views
- Carl Rogers and the Humanistic Perspective
- Current Thoughts on the Humanistic View of Personality
- Allport and Cattell: Early Attempts to List and Describe Trait
- Modern Trait Theories: The Big Five
- Current Thoughts on the Trait Perspective
- The Biology of Personality: Behavioral Genetics
- The Biology of Personality: Neuroscience
- Current Thoughts on the Heritability and Neuroscience of Personality
- Why Measure Personality?
- Interviews, Behavioral Assessments, and Personality Inv
- Projective Tests
- 14. Psychological Disorders
- Criteria for Abnormality
- The DSM-5
- Abnormality and Culture
- Diagnostic Labels
- Prevalence of Psychological Disorders
- Causes of Abnormality
- Neurodevelopmental Disorders
- Schizophrenia
- Bipolar Disorders
- Depressive Disorders
- Anxiety Disorders
- Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
- Dissociative Disorders
- Somatic Symptom Disorders
- Impulse Control Disorders
- Personality Disorders
- 15. Psychological Therapies
- 16. Statistics in Psychology
- What Are Statistics?
- Frequency Distributions
- Measures of Central Tendency
- Measures of Variability
- Looking at Differences: Statistical Significance
- The Correlation Coefficient
- What Is Applied Psychology?
- Types of Psychological Professionals
- Careers with a Master’s Degree in Psychology
- Careers with a Bachelor’s Degree in Psychology
- Areas of Specialization
- Psychology Beyond the Classroom
- What Are Industrial-Organizational Psychology and Human Factors Psychology?
- The History of Industrial-Organizational Psychology and the