Classical Conditioning: Videos & Practice Problems

Classical conditioning is a learning process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus, eliciting a conditioned response. This involves three phases: before conditioning (where unconditioned stimuli and responses exist), acquisition (pairing the neutral stimulus with the unconditioned stimulus), and after conditioning (where the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus). Key concepts include extinction, where conditioned responses diminish when the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus, and spontaneous recovery, the reappearance of a conditioned response after a rest period.

Introduction to Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is a fundamental concept in psychology, first discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov in the 1890s. Initially studying digestion in dogs, Pavlov observed that the dogs began to salivate not only when food was presented but also in response to stimuli associated with food, such as the sight of the lab assistant or an empty food bowl. This led to the realization that the dogs were forming associations between environmental stimuli and their salivation response, highlighting a specific type of learning.

Learning can be broadly defined as a relatively enduring change in behavior, thought, or knowledge resulting from past experiences. Within this framework, conditioning emerges as a form of learning that involves making associations between environmental stimuli and an organism's behavior, often referred to as associative learning. For instance, the smell of coffee may energize you, or your dog may wag its tail when it sees you holding its leash—both examples of conditioning in action.

There are two primary types of conditioning: operant conditioning and classical conditioning. Classical conditioning specifically involves pairing a neutral stimulus with a bodily response until the neutral stimulus can elicit that response on its own. While the definition may seem complex, the key takeaway is understanding the process and significance of classical conditioning as one of the simplest forms of learning, observable even in simple organisms like flatworms. This concept is foundational in the study of behavior and learning across the animal kingdom.

Classical Conditioning Example 1

In the study of psychology, the concept of learning serves as the most general term, defined as a change in an individual's behavior, thoughts, or knowledge resulting from past experiences. This foundational understanding of learning encompasses various types, one of which is conditioning. Conditioning refers to a specific form of learning that involves making associations between environmental stimuli and behaviors, highlighting the relationship between external factors and responses.

Delving deeper, we encounter classical conditioning, which represents a more specific type of conditioning. In classical conditioning, an individual learns to associate a neutral stimulus with a significant stimulus, leading to a conditioned response. This process illustrates how behaviors can be modified through learned associations, emphasizing the intricate connections between stimuli and reactions.

Overall, the hierarchy of these terms can be visualized in a Venn diagram, where learning is the broadest category, followed by conditioning, and culminating in classical conditioning as the most specific term. Understanding these concepts is crucial for grasping the mechanisms of behavior modification and the principles underlying psychological theories.

What trend did Pavlov notice that eventually became the focus of his research?

• A. Dogs had the cognitive skills to show preference for certain foods.
• B. Dogs displayed taste aversions that were individual to each dog and later supported by genetic markers.
• C. The dogs would salivate in anticipation of the food when certain environmental cues were present.
• D. The doges seemed to have a stronger appetite around certain caretakers.

Answer: (C)

Principles of Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is a fundamental learning process that involves three distinct phases: the before conditioning phase, the acquisition phase, and the after conditioning phase. Understanding these phases is crucial for grasping how learning occurs through associations between stimuli.

In the before conditioning phase, we identify two key components: the unconditioned stimulus (US) and the unconditioned response (UR). The unconditioned stimulus is a stimulus that naturally elicits a reflexive response without any prior learning. For example, food serves as an unconditioned stimulus for dogs, prompting an unconditioned response of salivation. This response is innate and does not require any learning. Additionally, there is a neutral stimulus, which does not elicit any specific response from the animal. In Pavlov's experiments, a bell acted as a neutral stimulus, having no inherent meaning to the dog at this stage.

The next phase is the acquisition phase, where learning begins to take place. During this phase, the neutral stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus. For effective learning, the neutral stimulus should precede the unconditioned stimulus. For instance, ringing the bell (neutral stimulus) before presenting the food (unconditioned stimulus) helps the dog learn to associate the sound of the bell with the arrival of food. Repeated pairings over time strengthen this association, leading to a reliable response.

Finally, in the after conditioning phase, the previously neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) as it now elicits a conditioned response (CR). The conditioned response is similar to the unconditioned response but is triggered by the conditioned stimulus. In our example, the bell, once neutral, now reliably causes the dog to salivate, demonstrating that learning has occurred.

In summary, classical conditioning illustrates how associations between stimuli can lead to learned behaviors. The transition from neutral stimulus to conditioned stimulus, along with the corresponding responses, highlights the process of learning through conditioning. Familiarity with the terminology—unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, neutral stimulus, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response—is essential for understanding and discussing classical conditioning effectively.

Classical Conditioning Example 2

In the context of classical conditioning, we can identify several key components that illustrate how learning occurs through the association of stimuli. Initially, we have an unconditioned stimulus (US), which is something that naturally elicits a response without prior learning. In this scenario, the food serves as the unconditioned stimulus, and the cat's excited reaction to the food is the unconditioned response (UR). Both of these elements are innate and do not require any learning.

Next, we introduce a neutral stimulus (NS), which in this case is the can opener. At this stage, the can opener does not provoke any response from the cat, as it is a meaningless stimulus to the animal. As we progress, we begin to pair the neutral stimulus with the unconditioned stimulus. This pairing occurs repeatedly, where the can opener (NS) is presented alongside the food (US), which continues to elicit the unconditioned response (UR).

Through this process of repeated association, the neutral stimulus transforms into a conditioned stimulus (CS). Eventually, the cat learns to associate the sound of the can opener with the arrival of food, leading to a new response known as the conditioned response (CR). This conditioned response mirrors the unconditioned response, but it is now triggered by the conditioned stimulus instead of the unconditioned stimulus.

The critical phase where learning occurs is referred to as the acquisition phase. During this phase, the repeated pairing of the neutral stimulus with the unconditioned stimulus teaches the animal that the presence of the can opener predicts the arrival of food. Over time, this learned association results in the cat responding to the can opener alone, demonstrating that learning has successfully taken place.

Which term describes the bell in Pavlov's experiment before the acquisition phase?

• A. Neutral stimulus.
• B. Conditioned stimulus.
• C. Unconditioned stimulus.
• D. Excitatory stimulus.

Answer: (A)

Dr. Cho runs a lab studying learning in rats. Rats typically show a fear response (like freezing) when presented with a loud noise. Dr. Cho pairs a loud noise with a flash of light repeatedly until the rats freeze at the light alone. In this study, what is the conditioned stimulus?

• A. The rat.
• B. The fear response (freezing)
• C. The light.
• D. The loud noise.

Answer: (C)

Extensions of Conditioned Responses: Second-Order Conditioning

Conditioned responses can be extended through a process known as second order conditioning, or higher order conditioning. This concept involves layering conditioned responses, where a previously established conditioned stimulus (CS) is paired with a new neutral stimulus (NS) to create an additional conditioned response.

In the initial phase, known as the before conditioning phase, we start with a CS that elicits a conditioned response (CR). For example, a bell serves as the CS, producing salivation in an animal, which is the CR. Alongside this, a new NS, such as a flashing light, is introduced. Initially, this light has no significance to the animal and elicits no response.

During the acquisition trials, the NS is paired with the CS. For instance, the light is flashed while the bell rings, which continues to produce the CR. Importantly, in second order conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus (US) is not presented; this distinguishes it from standard conditioning. The pairing of the two stimuli occurs repeatedly until the after conditioning phase is reached, where the light now elicits the CR, thus becoming a conditioned stimulus itself.

It is essential to note that the response generated by the second conditioned stimulus is typically weaker than the original response. This is a natural outcome of layering learning, as the new conditioned response is built upon an existing one. However, with sufficient trials, second order conditioning can effectively produce responses, demonstrating its validity as a learning process.

Classical Conditioning Example 3

Higher order conditioning, also known as second order conditioning, involves a series of steps that build upon a previously established conditioned response. Initially, a conditioned stimulus (CS), such as a bell, elicits a conditioned response (CR), like salivation in an animal. This foundational step is crucial as it sets the stage for further conditioning.

Next, a new neutral stimulus (NS) is introduced and paired repeatedly with the original conditioned stimulus during the acquisition phase. For instance, a flashing light can be paired with the bell. Through consistent pairing, the neutral stimulus begins to acquire the ability to elicit the conditioned response. Eventually, the neutral stimulus transforms into a conditioned stimulus itself, capable of producing the conditioned response independently.

At this point, it is important to identify the moment when the original conditioned stimulus is no longer necessary for the conditioned response to occur. This occurs in the final phase of conditioning, where the new conditioned stimulus (the previously neutral stimulus) can elicit the response on its own, without the presence of the original conditioned stimulus. This illustrates the essence of higher order conditioning, where the learning process allows for the establishment of new associations that can function independently of the initial stimulus.

In summary, higher order conditioning demonstrates how a new stimulus can become a conditioned stimulus through repeated pairings with an existing conditioned stimulus, ultimately leading to the ability to elicit a conditioned response without the original stimulus being present.

For higher-order conditioning to occur, a new neutral stimulus must be paired with what?

• A. A conditioned stimulus.
• B. Another neutral stimulus.
• C. An unconditioned stimulus.
• D. An extinct stimulus.

Answer: (A)

Extensions of Conditioned Responses: Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination

Conditioned responses can be both extended and refined through processes known as stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination. Stimulus generalization refers to the tendency for stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit the conditioned response. For instance, if an animal is trained to salivate upon hearing an A note on the piano, this A note serves as the conditioned stimulus, while salivation is the conditioned response. In this scenario, if the animal also salivates in response to similar notes, such as E or C notes, it demonstrates stimulus generalization, indicating that the animal has generalized its response to similar stimuli.

On the other hand, stimulus discrimination occurs when the animal learns to differentiate between similar but distinct stimuli. Continuing with the previous example, if the animal has been conditioned to salivate only to the A note, it will not respond to an E note, showcasing its ability to discriminate between these closely related sounds. This refined response indicates that the animal has learned to distinguish between stimuli that are similar yet different.

These two processes are inversely related; as stimulus discrimination improves, the likelihood of stimulus generalization decreases. Conversely, if an animal becomes less adept at discriminating between stimuli, it may exhibit greater generalization. Understanding these concepts is crucial in the study of behavioral psychology, as they illustrate how organisms adapt their responses based on their experiences with various stimuli.

Classical Conditioning Example 4

In the study of behavioral psychology, understanding the concepts of stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination is crucial. Stimulus generalization occurs when an organism responds to stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus, even if they are not identical. For instance, a lab rat that learns to associate the entry of a researcher with food may begin to run to its food bowl whenever a light turns on, regardless of whether the researcher is present. This demonstrates that the rat has generalized its response to any light, not just the specific context in which it was trained.

On the other hand, stimulus discrimination involves the ability to differentiate between similar stimuli and respond appropriately to each. An example of this is seen in sheepdogs trained with three distinct whistle calls. Each whistle sound prompts the dogs to perform a different task, indicating that they have learned to discriminate between the sounds and respond accordingly.

Another example of stimulus generalization can be observed in a cat that has been conditioned to meow in response to specific words. Over time, the cat begins to meow whenever it hears any person speak, indicating that it has generalized its response beyond the original conditioned stimuli to include all spoken words.

These examples illustrate the fundamental differences between stimulus generalization, where responses are broadened to similar stimuli, and stimulus discrimination, where specific responses are tailored to distinct stimuli.

Which of the following statements are accurate?
I) A cat runs to the kitchen every time they hear kibble being poured. Over time, the also begin to run to the kitchen anytime someone pours cereal. This is an example of stimulus generalization.
II) As stimulus generalization decreases, stimulus discrimination also decreases.
III) In stimulus discrimination, a similar stimulus will not elicit the conditioned response.

• A. I & II.
• B. II & III.
• C. I & III.
• D. I, II, & III

Answer: (C)

Extinction

Conditioned responses can diminish over time through a process known as extinction, which refers to the elimination of a learned response. This occurs when a conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without the accompanying unconditioned stimulus. For instance, if a bell (the conditioned stimulus) is paired with food (the unconditioned stimulus), the animal learns to associate the bell with food, leading to a conditioned response, such as salivation. However, if the bell is rung without presenting food, the animal will initially respond but will gradually stop responding as the association weakens. Eventually, the bell loses its significance, becoming a neutral stimulus once again.

The rate of extinction can be influenced by several factors, including the duration and frequency of the original conditioning. A response established over a longer period may take more time to extinguish compared to one learned quickly. Additionally, biological preparedness plays a role in how easily certain associations can be extinguished. For example, fear responses and conditioned taste aversions are often more challenging to eliminate due to their evolutionary advantages, as they help organisms avoid danger and harmful substances.

Interestingly, extinction is not always permanent. The phenomenon known as spontaneous recovery can occur, where a conditioned response reappears after a period of rest following extinction. For example, if an animal is given a break after extinction trials and then re-exposed to the conditioned stimulus, it may once again exhibit the conditioned response, albeit temporarily. This spontaneous recovery can happen multiple times, typically with brief rest periods in between.

Classical Conditioning Example 5

In analyzing extinction trials, we can observe how different responses are extinguished over time through graphical representation. The first graph illustrates a scenario where the extinction process took significantly longer, with a notable delay in response reduction until around the tenth trial. This indicates a more established response, as it required more trials to achieve extinction.

Conversely, the second graph demonstrates a quicker extinction process, where the response weakened considerably by the fourth trial and was nearly extinguished by the seventh trial. This suggests that the response was less established initially, allowing for a faster extinction.

To summarize the findings:

• Statement A, which indicates that extinction took fewer trials to achieve, corresponds to the second graph.
• Statement B, noting that extinction took more trials, aligns with the first graph.
• Statement C, which suggests a more established response, is also associated with the first graph due to the longer extinction duration.
• Statement D, indicating a less established response, relates to the second graph, where extinction occurred more rapidly.

This analysis highlights the relationship between the number of trials and the strength of the initial response, providing insights into the dynamics of extinction learning.

Which of the following situation is an example of extinction?

• A. Your dog runs to the door when he sees you pit your sneakers on because you always wear the on your walks. Eventually, you start wearing your sneakers all day long because they are so comfortable, and overtime, your dog stops running to the door when he sees you put your sneakers on.
• B. A toddler notices that whenever they put their crayons in a box, their parents praise the. They start putting their crayons in the box after every play session.
• C. A teenager feels anxious when they don't study for an exam. Before their next exam, they spend extra tie studying and feel less anxious.
• D. Your cat develops a habit of clawing the corner of the couch. Every time your cat does this, you redirect them with their favorite toy. Over time, they stop clawing the couch.

Answer: (A)

After extinction, a conditioned response may reappear when the conditioned stimulus is presented again after some time. What is this phenomenon?

• A. Stimulus generalization.
• B. Stimulus discrimination.
• C. Spontaneous recovery.
• D. Higher-order conditioning.

Answer: (C)

Common Misconceptions

Classical conditioning is a fundamental concept in psychology that involves learning through associations between stimuli. A common misconception is that it merely involves linking two stimuli together. In reality, classical conditioning teaches that the conditioned stimulus (CS) serves as a signal that predicts the occurrence of an unconditioned stimulus (US). For example, if a bell rings (CS), it signals that food (US) will follow. This predictive relationship is crucial for understanding how classical conditioning works.

Another misconception pertains to the timing of the stimuli during the acquisition phase. Many believe that the neutral stimulus (NS) and the unconditioned stimulus (US) should be presented simultaneously. However, for optimal conditioning, the neutral stimulus should precede the unconditioned stimulus. This means that the bell should ring before the food is presented. If the NS occurs at the same time or after the US, the learning process is less effective, resulting in a weaker conditioned response. To achieve the strongest conditioning, it is recommended to ring the bell, wait a few seconds, and then present the food.

Understanding these nuances in classical conditioning enhances our grasp of how learning occurs through associations, emphasizing the importance of timing and prediction in the conditioning process.

Here’s what students ask on this topic:

What is classical conditioning and who discovered it?

Classical conditioning is a learning process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus, eliciting a conditioned response. This concept was discovered by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, in the 1890s. Pavlov was studying digestion in dogs and noticed that they began to salivate at the sight of the lab assistant or an empty food bowl, even before receiving food. He realized that the dogs were associating environmental stimuli with food, leading to the salivation response. This discovery highlighted a form of learning where associations are made between environmental stimuli and an organism's behavior.

What are the three phases of classical conditioning?

The three phases of classical conditioning are:

1. Before Conditioning: This phase involves the unconditioned stimulus (US) and the unconditioned response (UR). The US naturally elicits the UR without any prior learning. Additionally, a neutral stimulus (NS) is present, which does not elicit any specific response.

2. Acquisition: During this phase, the neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus. Over time, the neutral stimulus becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus, leading to the unconditioned response.

3. After Conditioning: In this phase, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) and elicits a conditioned response (CR), similar to the unconditioned response, even in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus.

What is the difference between stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination in classical conditioning?

Stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination are two processes that refine conditioned responses:

Stimulus Generalization: This occurs when stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus also elicit the conditioned response. For example, if a dog is conditioned to salivate to a specific bell sound, it may also salivate to similar bell sounds.

Stimulus Discrimination: This is the ability to distinguish between similar but distinct stimuli. In this case, the dog would only salivate to the specific bell sound it was conditioned to and not to other similar sounds. This process involves refining the response to only the conditioned stimulus.

What is extinction in classical conditioning and how does it occur?

Extinction in classical conditioning is the process where a conditioned response diminishes and eventually disappears when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus. For example, if a dog is conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell (conditioned stimulus) because it predicts food (unconditioned stimulus), and the bell is repeatedly rung without presenting food, the dog will gradually stop salivating to the bell. This occurs because the association between the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus is no longer reinforced, leading the conditioned stimulus to lose its predictive value.

What is second-order conditioning in classical conditioning?

Second-order conditioning, also known as higher-order conditioning, is a process where a conditioned stimulus (CS) is paired with a new neutral stimulus (NS), leading the new neutral stimulus to become a conditioned stimulus as well. For example, if a dog has been conditioned to salivate to a bell (CS) that predicts food (unconditioned stimulus), a new neutral stimulus, such as a flashing light, can be paired with the bell. Over time, the flashing light alone can elicit the conditioned response (salivation) without the presence of the original unconditioned stimulus (food). This process layers conditioned responses, although the response to the second-order stimulus is usually weaker.