Trait Theories: Videos & Practice Problems

Trait research in psychology focuses on consistent characteristics that define an individual's personality. Gordon Allport introduced central and secondary traits, while Raymond Cattell identified 16 personality traits through factor analysis. The Eysencks contributed dimensions of introversion/extroversion and neuroticism/stability. The Big Five Factor Model, a widely accepted theory, describes personality using five dimensions: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism, often remembered by the acronym OCEAN. This model has been validated across cultures and shows stability throughout life, with slight changes in agreeableness and neuroticism as individuals age.

History of Trait Research

In psychology, traits are defined as consistent characteristics that influence how individuals think, behave, and feel across various contexts, such as work, school, and social settings. This concept of traits is foundational in understanding personality, with early research led by Gordon Allport, who proposed that each person possesses a set of central and secondary traits. Central traits are stable and define an individual's core personality, while secondary traits are more situational and can vary depending on the context. For instance, someone may generally be calm but become anxious in public speaking situations, indicating a secondary trait.

Raymond Cattell advanced trait research by employing factor analysis, a statistical method that identifies underlying patterns in data. Through this approach, Cattell identified 16 primary personality traits, which provided a more nuanced understanding of personality. Factor analysis allows researchers to analyze responses from extensive questionnaires to reveal these patterns without requiring in-depth mathematical knowledge from the participants.

Simultaneously, Cybil and Hans Eysenck contributed to the field by identifying two key dimensions of personality: introversion-extroversion and neuroticism-stability. Introversion refers to a preference for solitude and reserved behavior, while extroversion indicates sociability and friendliness. Neuroticism encompasses emotional instability, ranging from anxiety to calmness. These dimensions create a framework where individuals can be categorized based on their levels of introversion/extroversion and neuroticism/stability, leading to various personality profiles.

Despite their contributions, both Cattell's and Eysenck's theories faced critiques. Cattell's model was seen as overly complex due to the number of traits identified, while Eysenck's approach was criticized for being too simplistic, as it reduced human personality to just two dimensions. This ongoing dialogue in trait research highlights the complexity of human personality and sets the stage for future theories that aim to balance simplicity and comprehensiveness.

Example 1

In personality research, traits are defined as consistent patterns in thinking, behaving, or feeling that reflect an individual's thoughts, actions, and emotions. According to trait theories, these characteristics are generally stable across different contexts, meaning that while minor variations may occur, a person's fundamental traits remain consistent whether they are at work, school, or with family and friends.

Which trait theorist identified 16 personality dimensions?

• A. Maslow.
• B. Eysenck.
• C. Allport.
• D. Cattell.

Answer: (D)

Which of the following was a critique of Hans and Sybil Eysenck's work on traits?

• A. Their theory in traits was not replicable.
• B. Their theory is too simplistic and has too few dimensions.
• C. Their theory used factor analysis, which is not statistically rigorous.
• D. Their theory on secondary traits does not account for differences across the lifespan.

Answer: (B)

The Big Five Factor Model

The Big Five Factor Model is a prominent theory in modern psychology that categorizes personality into five distinct dimensions: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. Each dimension reflects a spectrum of traits that individuals may exhibit, influencing their behavior and interactions.

Openness refers to the willingness to engage in new experiences. Individuals low in openness may be seen as closed-minded, while those high in this trait are often described as creative and adventurous. Conscientiousness relates to a person's reliability and responsibility. A low score in this dimension may indicate impulsivity, whereas a high score suggests discipline and careful planning.

Extraversion captures the degree of sociability and outgoingness. Those who score low may be reserved or shy, while high scorers are typically friendly and engaging. Agreeableness reflects a person's tendency to be cooperative and compassionate. Individuals low in agreeableness might be perceived as stubborn, while those high in this trait are often trusting, sometimes to the point of gullibility.

Neuroticism involves the propensity to experience negative emotions. A person low in neuroticism is generally calm, whereas someone high in this trait may exhibit anxiety or pessimism. It is important to note that neuroticism encompasses a broader range of negative emotional experiences beyond just anxiety.

According to this model, everyone falls somewhere along each of these dimensions, creating a unique personality profile. A helpful mnemonic to remember the Big Five traits is the acronym OCEAN, representing openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.

Research supports the stability of these traits throughout life, confirmed through factor analysis across various cultures and generations. However, some predictable changes occur with age: agreeableness and conscientiousness tend to increase during adulthood, while neuroticism generally decreases. These trends reflect broader patterns observed in population averages rather than individual changes.

In summary, the Big Five Factor Model provides a comprehensive framework for understanding personality, highlighting the interplay of these five dimensions in shaping individual behavior and emotional responses.

Example 2

The Big Five Factor Model, a prominent framework in personality psychology, is built on the assumption that personality traits are relatively stable across time and various situations. This stability is a fundamental aspect of trait theories, which posit that individual differences in personality are consistent and predictable. Unlike some perspectives that suggest personality traits fluctuate significantly throughout a person's life, the Big Five model emphasizes that these traits remain constant, allowing for reliable measurement and assessment.

In this model, the five core traits—Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism—serve as a comprehensive structure for understanding human personality. Each of these traits can be quantitatively measured, providing valuable data for psychological research and applications. This quantitative approach is essential for validating the model and understanding the nuances of personality across different contexts.

While some theories propose a more extensive list of traits, such as 16 core traits, the Big Five model maintains a more streamlined perspective, focusing on these five key dimensions. This simplicity aids in both the understanding and application of personality assessments in various fields, including psychology, education, and organizational behavior.

Janet is an older woman who is very involved in her community. Last year, she fell for a phone scam and lost a significant amount of her retirement. Based on this story, which big five personality trait is Janet likely high in?

• A. Openness.
• B. Neuroticism.
• C. Extraversion.
• D. Agreeableness.

Answer: (D)

Research on the Big Five Model suggests that people who are high in neuroticism most likely to:

• A. Be highly reserved and quiet.
• B. Be highly conscientious of other's needs.
• C. Experience frequent negative emotions.
• D. Be optimistic about life.

Answer: (C)

Here’s what students ask on this topic:

What is the Big Five Factor Model in psychology?

The Big Five Factor Model is a widely accepted theory in psychology that describes personality using five dimensions: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. Each dimension represents a spectrum, and individuals fall somewhere along each scale. For example, openness reflects a tendency toward creativity and trying new experiences, while conscientiousness measures reliability and discipline. Extraversion assesses sociability, agreeableness evaluates cooperation and compassion, and neuroticism gauges the tendency to experience negative emotions. The model has been validated through factor analysis across cultures and generations, showing stability throughout life. However, slight changes occur with age, such as increases in agreeableness and conscientiousness and decreases in neuroticism during adulthood. The acronym OCEAN is often used to remember the traits.

Who introduced the concept of central and secondary traits in psychology?

Gordon Allport introduced the concept of central and secondary traits in psychology. Central traits are defining characteristics that form the core of an individual's personality and remain stable across various contexts, such as work, school, and social settings. For example, if multiple people consistently describe someone as "kind," kindness may be one of their central traits. Secondary traits, on the other hand, are more situational and context-dependent. These traits may not define the person overall but appear in specific circumstances, such as nervousness during public speaking. Allport's theory laid the foundation for modern trait research by emphasizing the distinction between stable personality traits and those influenced by situational factors.

What are the dimensions identified by Hans and Sybil Eysenck in their personality theory?

Hans and Sybil Eysenck identified two key dimensions in their personality theory: introversion/extroversion and neuroticism/stability. The introversion/extroversion dimension measures sociability, ranging from shy and reserved (introversion) to outgoing and friendly (extroversion). The neuroticism/stability dimension assesses emotional stability, with neuroticism indicating a tendency toward anxiety and negative emotions, while stability reflects calmness and emotional resilience. These dimensions can be combined to describe personality types, such as a calm introvert or an impulsive extrovert. While influential, their theory was critiqued for being overly simplistic, as some researchers felt it did not capture the complexity of human personality.

How does factor analysis contribute to trait research in psychology?

Factor analysis is a statistical technique that identifies underlying patterns in data, making it a valuable tool in trait research. In psychology, it is used to analyze responses from large personality questionnaires to uncover clusters of related traits. For example, questions like "I prefer working alone" and "I dislike relying on others" might reveal an underlying factor of independence. Raymond Cattell utilized factor analysis to identify 16 personality traits, advancing the field significantly. The Big Five Factor Model was also developed using factor analysis, confirming its validity across cultures and generations. This method helps researchers simplify complex data and create robust models of personality.

What predictable changes occur in the Big Five traits during adulthood?

While the Big Five traits are generally stable throughout life, research shows predictable changes during adulthood at the population level. Agreeableness and conscientiousness tend to increase slightly, reflecting the need for cooperation and responsibility in adult roles. For example, adults may become more disciplined and cooperative as they navigate work and family life. Neuroticism, the tendency toward negative emotions, tends to decrease with age, indicating greater emotional stability. These changes are averages observed in groups and do not imply dramatic shifts for individuals. Overall, the Big Five traits remain consistent, with these slight trends highlighting developmental patterns in adulthood.