Affirmative action programs have been criticized as ___ discrimination.

• A. reverse
• B. systemic
• C. institutional
• D. implicit

Answer: (A)

Verified step by step guidance

1. Step 1: Understand the concept of affirmative action programs, which are policies designed to address past discrimination by promoting opportunities for historically marginalized groups.
2. Step 2: Recognize that the criticism mentioned refers to the idea that these programs might discriminate against groups that were not previously disadvantaged.
3. Step 3: Identify the type of discrimination that occurs when a policy intended to help one group is perceived as unfairly disadvantaging another group; this is often called 'reverse discrimination.'
4. Step 4: Differentiate 'reverse discrimination' from other types such as 'systemic,' 'institutional,' or 'implicit' discrimination, which refer to broader, often unconscious or structural biases rather than direct policies.
5. Step 5: Conclude that the criticism of affirmative action programs as a form of discrimination is best described by the term 'reverse discrimination.'