Which of the following best illustrates higher-order conditioning in classical conditioning?

• A. A person becomes nauseated after eating spoiled food and later avoids that food.
• B. A dog learns to salivate to a bell after the bell has been repeatedly paired with food, and then begins to salivate to a light that has been paired with the bell but never with food.
• C. A child learns to fear a white rat after the rat is paired with a loud noise.
• D. A cat runs to the kitchen when it hears the can opener because it has learned that the sound predicts food.

Answer: (B)

Verified step by step guidance

1. Step 1: Understand the concept of higher-order conditioning, which occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus by being paired with an already established conditioned stimulus, rather than being paired directly with the unconditioned stimulus.
2. Step 2: Identify the unconditioned stimulus (US) and unconditioned response (UR) in classical conditioning. For example, food (US) naturally causes salivation (UR) in a dog.
3. Step 3: Recognize the first conditioned stimulus (CS1) that is paired directly with the US to produce a conditioned response (CR). In the example, the bell (CS1) is paired with food (US) to cause salivation (CR).
4. Step 4: Look for a second conditioned stimulus (CS2) that is paired with the first conditioned stimulus (CS1) but never directly with the US. The second stimulus (e.g., a light) eventually elicits the conditioned response (salivation) on its own.
5. Step 5: Compare the options to see which one describes this process of a stimulus being conditioned through association with an already conditioned stimulus, rather than directly with the unconditioned stimulus.