Which of the following is considered an element of causation in the context of stress research?

• A. Correlation without directionality
• B. Temporal precedence
• C. Observer bias
• D. Random assignment of stressors

Answer: (B)

Verified step by step guidance

1. Understand that in stress research, establishing causation means demonstrating that one variable directly influences another, rather than just being related.
2. Recall the three main elements required to establish causation: temporal precedence, covariation of cause and effect, and elimination of alternative explanations.
3. Identify that temporal precedence means the cause (e.g., stressor) must occur before the effect (e.g., stress response) in time.
4. Recognize that correlation without directionality does not establish which variable causes the other, so it is not sufficient for causation.
5. Note that observer bias and random assignment are related to research design and validity but are not elements that define causation itself.