Which critical influence did Edwin Sutherland leave out of his differential association theory in social psychology?

• A. The impact of biological predispositions on criminality
• B. The influence of socioeconomic status on criminal tendencies
• C. The effect of mass media exposure on deviant behavior
• D. The role of psychological reinforcement and punishment in learning criminal behavior

Answer: (D)

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1. Understand that Edwin Sutherland's differential association theory focuses on how criminal behavior is learned through interaction with others, emphasizing the role of social environment and communication.
2. Recognize that the theory highlights the importance of learning definitions, techniques, and motives for criminal behavior from intimate groups, but does not explicitly incorporate psychological mechanisms like reinforcement or punishment.
3. Identify that psychological reinforcement and punishment are key concepts in behavioral learning theories, such as operant conditioning, which explain how behaviors are strengthened or weakened based on consequences.
4. Compare the elements included in differential association theory with those in behavioral learning theories to see which critical influence is missing from Sutherland's framework.
5. Conclude that the role of psychological reinforcement and punishment in learning criminal behavior is the critical influence omitted by Sutherland in his differential association theory.